Ilias Tanimanidis, Konstantinos G. Papaspyropoulos
Urban green is a key component of municipal natural resources management (MNRM) in metropolitan areas, providing ecosystem services (ESs) related to climate regulation, environmental quality, and citizens’ well-being. However, these ESs are often weakly integrated into municipal management practices, and this may be due to the absence of structured accountability and reporting mechanisms. This study examines whether a topic-specific Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) reporting framework for urban green could support the integration of ecosystem services into MNRM. The research is based on semi-structured interviews with representatives from 23 municipalities across Greece, exploring awareness of ESG concepts, views on accountability and stakeholder engagement, and perceptions of urban green as a managed natural resource. The findings indicate broad recognition of the multifunctional role of urban green and strong agreement on the value of systematic reporting and accountability. At the same time, municipalities identify the lack of an appropriate reporting framework as a key constraint, alongside organizational and staffing limitations. Drawing on stakeholder and impression management theory, the study shows the respondents support that urban green ESG reporting can function as a governance tool, enhancing transparency and stakeholder involvement. A municipal ESG reporting framework is perceived as a tool that could support operationalizing ESs within local governance structures, contributing to a more effective MNRM.
Geography. Anthropology. Recreation, Social Sciences
Andrea Báez, Magaly Moraga Cárdenas, Cristian Colther Marino
This study analyses the socioeconomic determinants of household spending on cultural and leisure activities in Chile via microdata from the IX Family Budget Survey 2021-22. A quantile regression model is applied to capture how these determinants vary across different levels of spending. The results show that total income, higher education and residence in metropolitan areas positively influence cultural spending, with a greater impact on income in households with lower spending levels. However, in higher quantiles, a decreasing elasticity of spending relative to income is observed, whereas geographical location becomes more relevant in higher-income households. These findings provide valuable insights for the design of public policies that promote cultural participation and reduce regional disparities in access to culture.
ABSTRACT Objective To analyze projections of otolaryngology workforce supply and demand in the U.S. from 2021 to 2036. Methods Otolaryngology workforce projection data from the Bureau of Health Workforce (BHW), Health Resources and Services Administration's (HRSA) Health Workforce Simulation Model (HWSM), and National Center for Health Workforce Analysis (NCHWA) were collected and analyzed to project supply versus demand from 2021 to 2036. The adequacy of the projected otolaryngology workforce, measured as the supply–demand ratio, was the main outcome measurement. Results In 2021, it was assumed that the supply of otolaryngologists matched the demand. From 2021 to 2036, the total otolaryngologist supply is projected to decrease from 11,800 full‐time equivalents (FTEs) to 11,620 FTEs, a 1.5% decline, while total demand is projected to increase by 1050 FTEs (8.9% increase) to 12,850 FTEs. This projects a growing shortfall of 1230 FTEs, resulting in 90.4% workforce adequacy. The projected adequacy is geographically disparate, with 98% workforce adequacy in metropolitan areas versus 35.1% in nonmetropolitan areas by 2036. By this date, otolaryngology is projected to have the third highest rate of workforce adequacy (90.4%) among eight surgical specialties studied. Conclusion Though the HRSA's HWSM predicts a minor shortfall in the otolaryngology workforce supply compared to demand by 2036, the impact on workforce adequacy is significant. Regional variations and scenario outcomes underscore the need for continued research to update these forecasts, which carry important implications for physicians, patients, and policymakers in addressing workforce disparities and ensuring equitable access to otolaryngologic care across the nation. Level of Evidence 4.
Background: As primary care physician numbers continue to decline, more patients with type 2 diabetes are likely to receive care from advanced practice providers (APPs), including physician assistants and nurse practitioners. Analyzing diabetes medication prescribing trends among these provider types is essential for ensuring evidence-based diabetes care. Purpose: This retrospective, cross-sectional pilot study aimed to examine differences in type 2 diabetes medication prescribing trends by provider type (physicians vs. APPs) and geographic location, utilizing National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NAMCS) data. Methods: Data from the NAMCS were collected in August 2022 for the years 2015, 2016, 2018 and analyzed using IBM SPSS, employing chi-square analysis to assess associations between provider type, geographic location, and prescribed medications. Frequency distributions were calculated for patient characteristics and provider types. Results: Patients prescribed at least one diabetes medication (N = 1444) were included. Most received care from physicians (93.7 %) in metropolitan areas (82.8 %). Statistically significant associations were found between provider type, geographical location, and medications prescribed. Nurse practitioners were more likely to prescribe newer diabetes medications, while physician assistants frequently prescribed basal insulin. Patients in non-metropolitan statistical areas were more often prescribed older medications, whereas those in the West were less likely to receive older medications. Conclusions: The study revealed distinct prescribing patterns by provider type and geographic location. Notably, APPs tended to prescribe newer or specific medications in certain locations, highlighting the influence of provider type and geography on diabetes care. Further studies should include larger samples of APPs to deepen insights into these trends.
As urban development progresses, the complex phenomenon of city shrinkage increases. Perforated shrinkage is a leading pattern within Chinese cities. In this study, the Qingshan District in Wuhan (including its chemical industrial area) is considered as a representative case of a large metropolitan area experiencing perforated shrinkage. Through the use of methods such as spatial syntax, Point Of Interest (POI) analysis, and word frequency analysis , the study examines material and social spatial connections to verify the existence of an "island effect". The following results were obtained: 1) Analysis of the topological relationships within the Wuhan metropolitan development area and the interior regions of the Qingshan District reveals that Qingshan has low global and local integration values as well as choice metrics, indicating issues related to roadway accessibility and uneven distribution of transportation facilities. This leads to weak internal and external material spatial connections. Additional kernel density analysis of public facility POIs indicates poor and uneven infrastructure distribution in Qingshan. Additionally, questionnaire surveys and word frequency analysis suggest deficiencies in the area's external attractiveness and independent development at the policy level. These factors interact and contribute collectively to the island effect within Qingshan District. 2) Recognizing the similarities in the developmental background and policy frameworks between other domestic cities experiencing perforated shrinkage and the Qingshan District, this study infers that the island effect is a characteristic of metropolitan areas showing perforated shrinkage and is closely tied to institutional factors within Chinese urban areas. 3) The phenomenon of metropolitan perforated shrinkage and spatial connections have an interactive relationship, leading to the emergence of regional island effects. These island effects underscore the importance of coordinated internal development within the region, providing novel perspectives for managing urban shrinkage. For instance, cities should accelerate the development of transportation networks and construction of public spaces to avert feelings of isolation and closure at the spatial connection level, addressing the problem of unbalanced development with prompt promotion of policies emphasizing cooperation and talent attraction. This study's exploration and findings on the mechanisms and impacts of the isolation caused by perforated shrinkage highlight the urgency for better-coordinated development plans. This study presents innovative ways to address urban shrinkage aimed at improved urban infrastructural connectivity, equitable development, and resilient urban planning.
Background: Valvular heart disease (VHD) represents a spectrum of cardiac conditions, including valvular stenosis, valvular regurgitation, or mixed lesions affecting single or multiple valves. The severity of VHD has emerged as a major cause of cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality among the older population in the United States (U.S). Objective: To evaluate temporal trends in mortality associated with VHD in the elderly U.S population between 1999 and 2019. Methods: We utilized the CDC WONDER database for VHD mortality in adults ≥75 from 1999 to 2019, using ICD-10 codes. Age-adjusted mortality rates (AAMR) per 100,000 people with associated annual percentage change (APC) were calculated. Joinpoint regression was used to assess the overall trends and trends for demographic, geographic, and type of valvular disease subgroups. Results: A total of 666,765 VHD deaths in older adults from 1999 to 2019 was identified, with an initial decline in AAMR until 2007 with an APC: 0.62, 95 % CI (−1.66-0.33), stability until 2014, and a significant decrease until 2019 (APC: 1.47, 95 % CI [-2.24-1.04], P < 0.0001). Men consistently had higher AAMRs compared to women (overall AAMR men: 173.6; women: 138.2). The AAMRs were found to be highest in the White (166.5), followed by American Indian or Alaska Native population at (93.8) Hispanic or Latino at (80.7), Black or African American populations at (74.1) and lastly Asian or Pacific Islander (73.4). Non-metropolitan areas manifested higher AAMRs for deaths related to VHD than metropolitan areas (overall AAMRs 160.5 vs 149.5) respectively. State-wide AAMRs varied, with the highest in Vermont at 324.2 (95 % CI [313.0–335.4], P < 0.0001) and the lowest in Mississippi at 88.0 (95 % CI [85.0–91.0], P < 0.0001). Non-rheumatic and aortic valve disorders in adults ≥75 years had higher mortality rates compared to rheumatic or mitral valve conditions in those <75 years. Conclusion: Our study showed a decline in U.S. VHD mortality from 1999 to 2019 but found persistent disparities by gender, race, age, region, and VHD type. Targeted policies for prevention and early diagnosis are needed to address these inequalities.
Diseases of the circulatory (Cardiovascular) system
Zack W. Almquist, Tri Duc Nguyen, Mikael Sorensen
et al.
Abstract A central problem in the study of human mobility is that of migration systems. Typically, migration systems are defined as a set of relatively stable movements of people between two or more locations over time. While these emergent systems are expected to vary over time, they ideally contain a stable underlying structure that could be discovered empirically. There have been some notable attempts to formally or informally define migration systems. However, they have been limited by being hard to operationalize and defining migration systems in ways that ignore origin/destination aspects and fail to account for migration dynamics over time. In this work, we propose to employ spatio-temporal tensor co-clustering—that stems from signal processing and machine learning theory—as a novel migration system analysis tool. Tensor co-clustering is designed to cluster entities exhibiting similar patterns across multiple modalities and thus suits our purpose of analyzing spatial migration activities across time. To demonstrate its effectiveness in describing stable migration systems, we first focus on domestic migration between counties in the US from 1990 to 2018. We conduct three case studies on domestic migration, namely, (i) US Metropolitan Areas, (ii) the state of California, and (iii) Louisiana, in which the last focuses on detecting exogenous events such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In addition, we also examine a case study at a larger scale, using worldwide international migration data from 200 countries between 1990 and 2015. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of this approach and its limitations.
Lyra Egan, Lauren A. Gardner, Nicola C. Newton
et al.
Objective: This study evaluated the moderating effects of socioeconomic status (SES) and geographical location on the efficacy of an eHealth school-based multiple health behaviour change intervention – Health4Life – in targeting alcohol and tobacco use, dietary intake, knowledge, behavioural intentions, and psychological distress over 24-months. Methods: Data from the Health4Life cluster-randomised controlled trial conducted from 2019 to 2021 in 71 Australian secondary schools were analysed (N=6639; baseline age 11-14yrs). Schools were from metropolitan (89%) and regional (11%) areas, and participants’ SES was classified as low (15%), mid (37%), and high (48%) relative to the study population. Primary outcomes included alcohol and tobacco use, and a composite indicator of poor diet. Secondary outcomes were knowledge, behavioural intentions, and psychological distress. Latent growth models assessed moderating effects of SES and geographical location on between-group change over 24-months. Results: Geographical location moderated the intervention’s effect on odds of reporting a poor diet (OR = 1.79, 95% CI = 1.32–2.43, p < 0.001) and diet-related behavioural intentions (OR = 0.71, 95% CI = 0.56–0.89, p = 0.024) over time. Subset analyses indicated that intervention participants in regional areas had higher odds of reporting a poor diet (OR = 1.61, 95% CI = 1.13–2.29, p = 0.008), while those in metropolitan areas had higher odds of improving diet-related behavioural intentions (OR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.01–1.27, p = 0.041), compared to the control group. No other significant moderation effects were observed. Conclusions: While significant disparities were generally not observed, the geographical differences in intervention effects on diet and diet-related intentions suggest that co-designed and tailored approaches may benefit disadvantaged adolescents to address the disproportionately high rates of lifestyle risk behaviours among these priority populations.
Alexander I. Zemlin, Maria A. Matveeva, Evgeniia V. Gots
The purpose of studying the issues of ensuring the safe and efficient use of unmanned vehicles in a megalopolis in the context of the spread of infectious diseases using public regulation tools is to develop, based on the application of methods of systemic legal analysis, evidence-based proposals for improving legislation in the interests of using unmanned vehicles in a megalopolis in order to countering the spread of epidemics and pandemics. The lack of results of scientific understanding of the experience of legal support for the functioning of the transport system of the metropolis in the context of epidemics and pandemics, and, in particular, during the period of countering the spread of the coronavirus infection COVID-19, both in foreign countries and in Russia, seems to be an important negative factor that minimizes the potential of using self-driving cars to reduce cross-contamination opportunities in high-density areas, which undoubtedly include metropolitan areas.
Background. The ever-increasing threat of the spread of epidemics and pandemics, as well as their consequences, demonstrated, among other things, by the results of the coronavirus infection COVID-19, entails the well-founded attention of practitioners and the interest of scientists in determining the means to counter the threats of the spread of infectious diseases. Of particular importance is the search for such funds to ensure the safety of the population living in certain areas, characterized by the presence of additional factors that lead to a significant increase in the risk of the disease. In particular, we are talking about the situation in megacities characterized by an extremely high population density, which, combined with the presence of developed transport communications, increased passenger traffic, contributes to “cross” infection, the rapid spread of mass infectious diseases. At the same time, as the results of the study show, the use of unmanned vehicles in a metropolis in the interests of monitoring the epidemiological situation in areas with a high level of infection, delivering medicines to patients, etc. ensures minimization of the risk of infection of medical personnel, significantly reduces material costs and time spent on the implementation of such measures.
Materials and research methods. The use of methods of comparative legal analysis allowed the authors, based on the results of studying foreign legal sources, analytical data and scientific literature, allowed the authors to assess the applicability of the experience of legal regulation and the organization of the safe use of unmanned vehicles in a metropolis in the context of the emergence and counteraction to the spread of epidemics and pandemics. A formal dogmatic analysis of Russian regulatory legal and individual acts on the issues of ensuring the safe use of unmanned vehicles in an urban agglomeration made it possible to identify gaps and contradictions that minimize the potential for legal impact on the participants in the relations under study.
Results. A comprehensive systematic and legal study of scientific sources, norms of international, foreign and Russian legislation, law enforcement practice allowed the authors to formulate proposals for improving the system of legal regulation in order to safely use unmanned vehicles in a metropolis in the event of risks of occurrence and counteracting the spread of epidemics and pandemics.
Conclusion. Legalization in Russian public law of the special requirements proposed by the authors for ensuring the use of unmanned vehicles in a metropolis, their network interaction, the legal grounds for admission to operation and the conditions for their safe use to monitor the epidemiological situation, supply the population with medicines and food in the context of the introduction of quarantine measures in urban agglomeration, can contribute to the elimination of identified gaps in administrative regulation.
ABSTRACTMa’anshan City, located in the Yangtze River Delta region, is a demonstration city for handling the industrial transfer of the Nanjing, Hefei, and Wanjiang Metropolitan Areas in China. Developing and utilizing underground space can effectively alleviate the land scarcity issue in urban development. The suitability evaluation of underground space development in Ma’anshan City offers valuable information support for the economic and efficient use of land resources. Drawing on POI, night light radiance, and population data, this study selects six indices, including POI kernel density, road node connection rate, night light radiance in the most recent year, change amplitude of night light radiance over the years, population density in the most recent year, and change amplitude of population density over the years. The study conducts a comparative analysis of the suitability of underground space development in Ma’anshan City using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the Combination Weight Method. Comparing the results of AHP and Combination Weight Method reveals that the latter can identify a more extensive range of highly suitable development zones than the former. This study provides an effective method for evaluating the suitability of underground space development in urban planning, which contributes to promoting sustainable urban development.
Previous research suggests that there should be environmental solutions for the emerging health threats caused by poor air quality, such as particulate matters (PM, including PM<sub>2.5</sub> and PM<sub>10</sub>). Research related to air quality (measured by PM) using land-use regression and geographically weighted regression shows some patterns among different environmental contexts which could reduce the threats from such elements; however, there is little concrete evidence for such threats. To fill this research gap, this study installed real-time PM sensors at human breathing heights at five locations in Seoul, South Korea, and recorded the PM values collected between November 2021 and January 2023. Three-phase time-series analyses were conducted on the collected data. Lower levels of PM concentration were found in more enclosed spaces. In particular, when a space was surrounded by vegetation, the air quality significantly increased. The purpose of this study is to explore variations in air quality, particularly PMs densities, in different types of land use within urban areas such as Seoul. Greater metropolitan areas such as Seoul have a great number of health problems caused by air quality. This study’s results contribute to policy and decision-making in urban design to tackle such problems and to provide spatial guidelines for public health and welfare.
Abstract Human flow in cities indicates social activity and can reveal urban spatial structures based on human behaviours for relevant applications. Scalar potential is a mathematical concept that, when properly applied, can provide an intuitive view of human flow. However, the definition of such a potential in terms of the origin-destination flow matrix and its feasibility remain unresolved. In this case, we use Hodge–Kodaira decomposition, which uniquely decomposes a matrix into a potential-driven (gradient) flow and a curl flow. We depict the potential landscapes in cities resulting from commuting flow and reveal how the landscapes have either changed or remained unchanged by years or methods of transportation. We then determine how well the commuting flow is described by the potential, by evaluating the percentage of the gradient component for metropolitan areas in the USA and show that the gradient component is almost 100% in several areas; in other areas, however, the curl component is dominant, indicating the importance of circular flow along with triangles of places. The potential landscape provides an easy-to-use visualisation tool for showing the attractive places of human flow and will help in a variety of applications such as commerce, urban design, and epidemic spreading.
In Spain, housing is one of the main axes of social inequality. Its position within Spain’s economic model and welfare system is key to understanding why its financialization at the beginning of the 21st century had such different consequences among residents as well as territorially. In this context, from 2001 to 2011, Madrid became one of the most segregated metropolitan areas in Europe. This article delves into how both housing and its location organise inequality in different social spheres and reproduce it over time. To this end, the geography of this inequality is analysed in different social residential trajectories, along with how segregation produces its own dynamics of inequality. The analysis is based on census data and applies a combination of factor and cluster analyses. The results reveal important processes of social residential marginalisation articulated by the interaction between high international immigration and the spatial manifestation of the housing bubble. The main socio-spatial result of this process is the disappearance of mixed social spaces in Madrid, previously located in the centre of the city. This dynamic produces opposite territories in terms of advantage and disadvantage in different spheres linked to social inequality such as education, health, leisure, care and even prejudice. In the process, impoverished immigrants disperse towards the neighbourhoods that concentrate the greatest disadvantages in each of these spheres.
The Seoul Metropolitan Government is promoting and implementing eco-friendly transportation policies covering the revitalization of public transportation, establishment of green transportation promotion areas, and the expansion of shared-bicycle use. With the prevalence of the COVID-19 pandemic, cities worldwide have been paralyzed by lockdowns, the strict implementation of social-distancing policies, and the shutdown of different industry sectors. People's movement and traffic volume have decreased significantly. The pandemic has forced to people change their travel-related decision-making tendencies. Against this backdrop, this study analysed the changes in shared-bicycle traffic in Seoul during the pandemic. This study analyzed the relationship between social distancing levels and shared bicycle usage using regression analysis. This study conducted an analysis of spatially formed clusters through Moran's I test and hotspot analysis. The results indicate that an important correlation between the spread of COVID-19 and shared bicycle use has been found. When social distancing levels increased by one level, the number of shared bicycle rental per day increased by about 10,000 times. As a result of spatial analysis, changes in shared bicycle usage are spatially forming clusters, and Moran's I test showed statistically significant results with a p-value very close to zero. The study results indicate that under special circumstances, government policy plays an important role in promoting green transportation. The use of green transportation is directly related to falling atmospheric pollution in the city. Such transportation can significantly benefit the environment. The government can produce more effective results by considering local characteristics to revitalize eco-friendly transportation.
Chemical engineering, Computer engineering. Computer hardware
Charnetta L. Williams, Tanja Y. Walker, Laurie D. Elam-Evans
et al.
The 2016 and 2017 National Immunization Surveys-Teen (NIS-Teen) highlighted disparities in human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination coverage by metropolitan statistical area (MSA) status. Coverage with ≥1 dose of HPV vaccine was significantly lower among teens in suburban and mostly rural areas than it was among those in mostly urban areas. Reasons underlying this disparity are poorly understood; this analysis sought to identify sociodemographic factors associated with not initiating the HPV vaccine series and to determine whether these factors differed by MSA status. Using NIS-Teen data for a sample of 41,424 adolescents from the 2016 and 2017 survey years, multivariate logistic regression was utilized to assess associations between various sociodemographic factors and non-initiation of the HPV vaccine series by MSA status. Adjusted prevalence ratios and 95% confidence intervals are reported. A secondary analysis assessed missed opportunities for HPV vaccination by MSA status and estimated what coverage could be if these missed opportunities had not occurred. Most factors associated with not receiving HPV vaccine were similar across all three MSAs, including living in the South, having a mother with some college education, not having an 11–12-year-old well-child visit, and not receiving a provider recommendation for vaccination. Others were associated with non-initiation of the HPV vaccine series in only specific MSAs. Teens in suburban areas (82.2%) were more likely to miss opportunities for HPV vaccination than those in mostly urban (79.3%) areas. Coverage with ≥1 dose of HPV vaccine in all three MSAs would be substantially higher if these missed opportunities had been eliminated.
Claudia Marcela Orduz Rojas, Doralice Barros Pereira, Janise Bruno Dias
The third largest Brazilian metropolis - Belo Horizonte - accommodates local communities within its peri-urban area surrounding the Serra do Gandarela. These communities experience tensions, risk, and conflicts due to the expansion of mining activities. By analyzing the creation of the Serra do Gandarela National Park, as well as the existing and new tailings dams in the area, this article aims to unveil the conflicts experienced by these communities. We conclude that the environmental conflicts arise from policies of economic development (neo-extractivism related to progress and growth), which tend to deprive the local communities of access, use, and control of natural and land resources. In addition, the "imminent risks" and the disasters associated with the construction and operation of tailings dams allow for the rise of disaster capitalism.
Gabriela Narcizo de Lima, Víctor Orlando Magaña Rueda
The Metropolitan Area of Sao Paulo (MASP) has undergone a rapid urban growth process over the years, and this has been reflected in major climate change. Thus, through the documentation of the urban evolution process of MASP associated with the analysis of historical series of meteorological data, this research tries to show that changes in land use, evidenced mainly by the loss of green areas in the process of urbanization growth over the years, may result in climatic changes characterized by different states of equilibrium. The climatic changes caused by urban growth are better observed in the temperatures, however, the variable precipitation, although with a high level of uncertainty, can also reflect these changes in particular episodes, which in the case of MASP occur mainly during the rainy season. The results of this research indicate that both precipitation and temperature data show a tendency to increase the frequency of days with extreme values, especially since the mid 70's. Knowing the results that intense changes in land use can generate, the population and urban planners should consider the possibility of applying actions to control and reduce this disturbance in addition to adapting to the changes that have already occurred. Keywords: Metropolitan area of Sao Paulo, Urban growth, Temperature changes, Precipitations changes, Urban climate system
dr.seyed ali alavi, dr.ali ahmad abadi, dr.mohamad molaei ghelichi
et al.
The deployment of every urban element in a specific spatial-physical location of the city is subject to certain principles, rules and mechanisms that, if followed, will result in the success and effectiveness of that element at the same location. Determining the proper location for the establishment of sport centers is one of the most important tasks and objectives of urban managers, which must be prepared in a systematic framework prior to implementation. In Tehran metropolitan area, lack of recreational and sports spaces and its inappropriate distribution considering the population of each region, has been a major problem for the citizens of this city. The size of the sports field in Tehran is 50 centimeters per person. Also, in the 10th district of Tehran, sport spaces and locations have not been optimized in proportion to the population allocation of space; Therefore, the organization and development of these centers seems important. The purpose of this study is to determine spatial-location organization and physical development of sport spaces in the 10th district of Tehran. The research method is a descriptive-analytic study. By studying and analyzing the literature of research in the areas of land use and location, determining the 9 criteria effective in organizing gyms through overlapping the informative overlays in Arc GIS software, identifies the best places to fit the target. The results of the research show that the sport centers in the 10th district of Tehran are not in desirable position in terms of distribution, and the distribution of these centers has been done randomly. Thus, after considering the appropriate places for the construction of sport centers and adapting them to ground facts, several places for the establishment of new sport centers for this region have been proposed. It also becomes clear that the application of multi-criteria decision-making techniques and spatial analysis of GIS can be used as an effective tool for locating sport spaces. The placement of sport spaces alongside the communication paths and their proper distance from the industrial and military uses proves properly the ability and power of the analytical model of the research.
The future of the city is underground, says the Urban Underground
Space Center of Japan (USJ, 2016). And Japanese politicians clearly
agree. In 2001, the Diet passed a law about the use of the extreme
underground (daishindo), allowing some development of areas below 40 meters for public services without negotiations with owners of the land aboveground. Underground constructions are already everywhere throughout Japan. Beneath one of the densest and most crowded urban centers (Hongo, 2014), for example, Tokyo Station is connected through more than four kilometers of passageways to neighboring locations, including other major stations. They anchor another bustling city. Long passageways of underground shopping malls with restaurants are connected to subway entrances and to the high-speed Shinkansen Station. Aboveground, the land has seen extensive remodeling, from
careful restoration of the old train station facing the Imperial Palace
(Fig. 1) to the creation of new skyscrapers (Fig. 2) and a new entrance towards the Ginza shopping area (Figs. 3 and 4) (Tokyo Station, 2016).
But below, the new Tokyo Station City, with its old and super-modern elements, attracts tourists and shoppers, not just passengers (Figs. 5 and 6). It has become an attraction in itself. Tokyo Station is not an exception: many other underground shopping malls lie under the capital’s major stations. Close to 3 kilometers of underground passages connect Shinjuku to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government office and other corporate skyscrapers, hotels, and department stores in its vicinity (Figs. 7, 8, and 9).