Hasil untuk "History and principles of religions"

حسن نامی, فرزانه فروزان نیا, سید ابراهیم رایگانی et al.

تکوین و توسعه تمدن‌ها از دوره پیش از تاریخ تاکنون، تا حد زیادی مدیون کشف فلز است. انسان هزاره ششم و پنجم ق.م. از فلز برای ساخت ابزار و سلاح استفاده می‌کرد که ‌این عمل تا عصر حاضر نیز تداوم یافته است. با افزایش اطلاعات بشر، نقش فلزات در تحولات کشاورزی، حمل­و­نقل، هنر و صنایع اهمیت یافت. سلاح‌سازی و یا ساخت جنگ­افزارهای فلزی، یکی از زیرشاخه‌های فلزگری محسوب می‌شود و تاکنون مطالعه‌ای متمرکز بر رزم‌افزارهای منطقه خراسان به دلیل کمبود مطالعات باستان شناسی در این منطقه، صورت نگرفته است. درحالی­که با تأسیس موزه خراسان، برخی از جنگ­افزارهای فلزی در مخزن موزه ملی ایران، به این موزه منتقل شد که در حال حاضر در مخزن موزه خراسان است و اغلب این اشیاء از قاچاقچیان عتیقه کشف شده و تاریخچه و گاه­نگاری علمی برای آن وجود ندارد. موضوع پژوهش حاضر، گاه­نگاری نسبی و شناخت بستر فرهنگی شمشیرهای مطالعاتی است. این اشیاء بخشی از مواد فرهنگی است که فاقد شناسنامه بوده و مطالعه علمی ‌و بررسی گاه­نگاری آن یکی از ضروریات است. به همین دلیل در پژوهش حاضر، ابتدا شمشیرهای این مجموعه رزم‌افزار، معرفی، توصیف، گونه‌شناسی شده  و سپس با اتخاذ رویکرد مطالعه تطبیقی، جهت ارزیابی گاه­نگاری و بستر فرهنگی‌شان، مورد مطالعه قرار گرفته است. نتایج به­دست آمده بیانگر وجود پنج گونه متفاوت شمشیر فلزی است که گاه­نگاری نسبی آن بر اساس مطالعه تطبیقی متعلق به عصرآهن تا اواخر دوره تاریخی است. جنس این اشیاء مفرغ، آهن و ترکیبی از این دو فلز است و از نظر فرمی ‌و ظاهری شباهتی با نمونه‌های به­دست آمده از مناطق شمال مرکزی، شمال غرب و غرب فلات ایران دارد که به­خاطر نداشتن بستر باستان‌شناختی برجا، انتساب این اشیاء به منطقه‌ای خاص، چالش‌هایی را به همراه دارد.

Sezai Bekdemir

Eşler arasında huzur ve mutluluğun temin edilmesi, evliliğin şer’î gayelerinden biridir. Bu gayenin gerçekleşmesi, eş adaylarının (hâtıb ve mahtûbenin) birbirlerini beğenmelerine; aralarında ülfet ve uyumun sağlanmasına bağlıdır. Maslahata binâen Şâri’, nikâh akdinden önce eş adaylarının birbirlerini görmelerini tavsiye etmiştir. Normal şartlarda birbirlerine yabancı olan karşı cinslerin birbirlerine bakmaları şer’an yasaklanmıştır. Ancak bazı özel durumlarda belirli sınırlar çerçevesinde “bakma” eylemi caiz görülmüştür. Evliliğe niyet etmek de bu özel durumlardan biri olarak kabul edilmiştir. Fıkhî açıdan aralarında nikâh akdi bulunmayan namahrem erkek ve kadının birbirlerine bakmaları, zaruret ve zaruret mesabesindeki bir ihtiyaca dayanılarak caiz görülmüştür. Evlenmeyi düşünen birinin eş adayına bakması da bu minvalde değerlendirilmiştir. Hâtıb ve mahtûbe arasındaki bakmayı ruhsat olarak değerlendiren fukaha bu bakmanın caiz olması için birtakım şartlar ileri sürmüştür. Bunlardan; evlilik niyeti taşıma, fitneden hali olma ve halvetten sakınma şartları üzerinde ittifak edilirken mahtûbeden izin alma ve şehvetten kaçınma gibi şartlarda ihtilaf edilmiştir. Bu bağlamda tarafların birbirlerine bakmalarının şer’î sınırları mezheplerin yaklaşımları doğrultusunda tespit edilmeye çalışılacaktır. Mevcut çalışmamız ile evlenme aşamasındaki bireylere, meşru dairede görüşme ve birbirlerine bakmanın ölçülerinin verilmesi amaçlanmaktadır.

Samo Skralovnik, Nina Ditmajer

The paper answers the key questions regarding Ravnikar-Zupan's translation of the Pentateuch: why it remained in the manuscript, when it was translated and who is its translator. The translation is first placed in the wider socio-cultural situation by presenting the attitude of the Catholic Church towards the translation of the Bible in the first half of the 19th century and shedding light on the functioning of state and church censorship. By evaluating the correspondence between the members of Zois's circle who participated in the creation of the translation, the questions of authorship and the year of creation of the translation are addressed. In contrast to the current practice, which addresses the translation as Ravnikar's, it is shown that it is more correct to speak of Ravnikar-Zupan's translation, since it is clear from the letters between Kopitar, Zupan and Zois that Ravnikar did not translated the Pentateuch himself. The letters also show that the entire translation of the Pentateuch was completed in November 1812. In the last part of the article, by analysing a few lines of the first chapter of the Genesis in both versions of the manuscript, it is shown that the R1 manuscript depends on Japelj-Kumerdej's translation solutions, which mostly fully or partially summarizes it, and also on Dalmatin's translations solutions. It is indicated that in the case of manuscript R1, the translators did not start from scratch, but rather, similar to their contemporaries, adapted the biblical text of already existing translations. The same applies to manuscript R2, but to a lesser extent and with a greater dependence on Dalmatin, which also exhibits specific linguistic characteristics evident in Ravnikar's printed books.

Katja Triplett

Buddhist ritual healing and medical therapies included care for domestic animals, such as the horse. In pre-modern Japan, equine medicine (ba’i 馬医) was not restricted to the treatment of military horses; it was also practiced in a religious context. The Scroll of Equine Medicine (Ba’i sōshi emaki 馬医草紙絵 巻, 1267) is an enigmatic picture scroll held by the Tokyo National Museum. It extends to more than six meters and contains images of ten divine figures related to the healing of horses, followed by seventeen pictures of plants, and a postscript emphasizing that the content of the scroll should be kept secret. Many of the plants listed in the scroll are either associated with the world of Buddhism, e.g. Yakushi-sō 薬 師草, ‘Medicine Buddha plant,’ or with horses, e.g. metsu-sō 馬頭草, ‘horsehead plant.’ Previous analyses of the scroll largely focused on the botanical identification of the sketches of the plants. This article reviews current interpretations of the scroll and explores the question of whether the plant names were thought to empower the plants to be used as potent materia medica for veterinary purposes. Based on earlier analyses, I suggest a new interpretation of the scroll from a study of religions perspective taking into consideration that some of the plant names in the scroll indicate both health-related and salvific potency. I also address the possible use of the scroll. The scarcity of textual information and the choice of textual detail and imagery in this ‘secret’ scroll suggests that it was used in the context of an oral transmission and empowerment ritual. The scroll itself seems to have been an object of ritual empowerment, rather than a compendium of materia medica for practical daily use when caring for horses.

Maria Barabanova

Revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya party used a terrorism as a method of disorganization of government. As objects of that except emperor became the most odious statemen and general Vassily Strelnikov, who was attorney of Kyiv military district court. He truly hates revolutionary youth, attorney activizes massive searches and arrests. Strelnikov intimidates them by death penalty that bring them to give wanted testimonies. As the inquiry progresses attorney shuffles and overcharges facts for exact death penalty. Negative recalls about Strelnikov leaved his coworker Vassily Novitzky, lead of Kyiv gendarme province governance and liberal professor of law Fyodor Kistyakovsky. These reports allow to have trust to revolutionary memoirs. A populist Vera Figner propose to kill Strelnikov. She compiles reports about his directions and everyday life. Then to Odessa came Stepan Khalturin, one of executors, the second arrived only in two months – Nikolay Zhelvakov. Khalturin invents a plan of attempt, after a murder he has to drive away a comrade in cart that waits at neighbor street. Khalturin behave uncompromisingly and don’t listen other points of view. 18 march of 1882 Zhelvakov shoot and kill an attorney Strelnikov, but both Zhelvakov and Khalturin was grabbed by people in the crowd. At inquiry Zhelvakov behave hardy and only explicate reasons of his action. But Khalturin make to excuse himself and just before an execution he gave honest testimonies. Probably he makes to put off his death penalty. This successful for revolutionists act of terrorism was prepared very bad and mirrors a state of Narodnaya Volya party after one year of Alexander II assassination.

Masoud Bahramian, Mahdi Salah, Ahmad Falahzadeh

Following the assassination of the third caliph in 35 A.H. and the imposed wars upon Imam Ali the ground was prepared for the rise of Osmaniye thought in a part of Islamic world. The Umayyadsattempts to marginalize Imam Ali's virtues through their narrators network played a widespread role and later The Abbasid's political campaigns in internalizing and perpetuating this thought and theory, perspectively. After the fall of Umayyads and ascending of Abbasids to the throne and with the maturity of Ahl-e-Hadis, Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal (164-241 A. H.) contributed to the Islamic solidarity through introducing Tarbi'a thought, i.e. accepting Imam Ali as the fourth caliph. The present research attempts to consider this thought through analyzing and describing the history of this thought. It also resolves to answer the question of" what have been the backgrounds of Tarbi'a in Ibn-Hanbal's perspective?". The findings of this research suggest that with the help of Ahl-e-Bayt and influence of Hadis narrators famous for their love of Ahl-e-Bayt, Ibn-e Hanbal set out to answer intellectual questions of his age, mitigate verbal disputes and carry out religious desensitizing in society. This research, based on the" sovereignty symmetry and religious belief-making" approach and through considering Hadis changes in the third century, set out to analyze and describe Tarbi'a in Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal's perspectives.

Olga Izotova

The article examines various aspects of shepherdship mentioned by St. Theodore the Studite in the collection of his letters. The collection contains letters sent to patriarchs, bishops, abbots and abbesses, as well as their flocks. There are few letters to priests and they do not touch on pastoral topics, in contrast to the epistles to the bishops that multiplied after 815. Among them, it is necessary to mention the letter 11 to bishop Anastasius, as a text completely devoted to the episcopal ministry. In total, there are more than fifty letters to the bishops, and a little less than eighty to the heads of the monasteries. The correspondence of St. Theodore with Mother Superior Euphrosyne is especially interesting. Descripting the episcopal ministry, St. Theodore makes extensive use of the teachings of St. Gregory the Theologian, and when talking about pastoral qualities works of St. Maximus the Confessor. Despite not the fact that St. Theodore often uses the word "pastor" simply to designate a ruler, bishop or abbot, it is not just a designation of the holy dignity for him, but the title of shepherd can be received by one owing to his deeds. The basis of shepherding, from the point of view of St. Theodore, there must be a realization in oneself of the image of Christ, the image of a virtuous life, approaching God, the realization of the pastoral logos in the right way, the acquisition of a disposition towards spiritual life. A shepherd who does this is capable of being a legislator for his disciples, capable of raising their souls to God. An important aspect of pastoral ministry for St. Theodora - accepting this service as obedience and service of love.

Enes Dağ

Spinoza’nın zihnin bir gücü olarak “hafıza”ya dair ortaya koyduğu fikirleri, yabancı dillerde, özellikle İngilizce Spinoza literatüründe geniş ve merkezi bir konum teşkil etmektedir. Buna karşın, bu konuda Türkçede detaylı bir çalışmanın yapılmadığı görülmektedir. Bu çalışma, öncelikle Spinoza’nın hafıza doktrinini onun kendisine özgü zihin felsefesinin diğer unsurlarıyla birlikte ele alarak söz konusu eksikliği gidermeye ve anılan merkezi konuma işaret etmeye çalışmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, Spinoza sisteminde “hafıza”nın tanımları irdelenmekte, ortak bir tanımın sınırları belirginleştirilerek hafızanın doğası çözümlenmekte ve onun bedenle birlikte var olan bir güç olması sebebiyle, zihnin anlama faaliyeti önünde ekseriyetle bir engel teşkil ettiği tespit edilmeye çalışılmaktadır. Bununla birlikte “hafıza” sayesinde zihinde oluşan fikirlerin, zihnin anlama faaliyeti önünde her zaman bir engel teşkil etmediği ve “hafıza”nın zihne faydalı bir yönünün de bulunduğu iddia edilmektedir. Ayrıca çalışmada “hafıza kaybı”nın bedensel etkileri ve zihinsel sonuçları açık kılınmakta ve anımsamanın sürekliliği ya da kopukluğu bağlamında gündeme gelen “kişisel aynılık” problemi, Spinoza’nın hafıza teorisi bağlamında aydınlatılmaktadır.

Alireza Solaimanzadeh, Parviz Hossein Talaee, Azim Shahbakhsh

Inscription of king Darius I the Great in the Naqsh-e Rustam which is known as DNb can be one of the most important Iranian works in the field of thought, especially about the political system and the ideal king or leader. The inscription linked the power with philosophy and it represents a combination of philosophy and political power. The signs of this inscription can be found in the Plato's Republic, or Aristotle's politics, in the form of their political views. It is clear that the changes in time have influenced the evolution of Iranian political thought in the Achaemenid period. DNb inscription also proves that some political thinkers may have approached the Achaemenid system and succeeded in producing knowledge of governance that covered the ideological or idealistic philosophical foundations and theoretical levels of political thought. However, the questions and hypotheses of this research are focused on the similarities of political thought in DNb's inscription and Greek philosophy. This paper deals with the documentary analysis of the inscription on the basis of historical research and ancient language studies. Method of data collection is librarical. In this paper, the comparative method plays a key role in research. By relying on such a method, we will seek to understand the similarities and differences in the political system of Iran and Greece. The results of this study will show how Darius's inscription in Naqsh-e Rostam has effectively and skillfully represented the tools of popular and official Achaemenid ideology, the natural arguments for establishing government.

Mohammad Azagh, Feraidon Allahyari, Ali akbar Kajbaf

Social movements are a fundamental argument in revolution theories this Because of this importance, different theories have tried to explain them. One of the most important of these theories is the theory of relative deprivation. Bani Abbas Corps with the Slogan of equality raised level of people's value expectations, However, after a while, the level of people's Valuable abilitydid not change much. By challenging economic, religious, and participatory values, the Bani Abbas increased the volume of these movements. Bani Abbas with Catch taxes and land seizures, elimination of Religious cohesion and lack of broad participation of social classes in government work, caused a relative deprivation social classes. This relative deprivation, in turn, increased the participation of social classes and increased the volume of movements. eventually, with the relative control that the opposition gained over the forces of the movement They lasted a long time. The present article tries to focus on the Sanbad and al-Muqana 'movement and using the method of historical and sociological analysis and review the content of historical , In the light of the theory of relative deprivation, Examine the contexts and reasons for the joining of different classes in this movement.

Georgy Zakharov

This article studies the views of St. Basil the Great on such signifi cant phenomenon in the church history of the 4th century as a church faction. The article distinguishes macrofactions (group of bishops which is extensive and heterogeneous from the doctrinal and church-political points of view and united by the adherence to the heritage of one of the great councils) and microfactions (small consolidated group of bishops who share the same views). St. Basil includes himself into the group of supporters of St. Meletius of Antioch, to which he referred with a range of concepts, namely “synod”, “participants of communion”, “we”, “our Church”. The saint sought to overcome diff erences of opinion between the Orthodox supporters of the Nicene macrofaction and to exclude the heterodox groups (Marcellians, Apollinarians, Eustathians). He considered the confession of the Nicene faith and dissociation from the idea of the creation of the Holy Spirit to be the basis for a doctrinal consensus. In addition, St. Basil actively defended the doctrine of the three Divine Hypostases. He interpreted the Holy Scripture and the Nicene faith in the light of the liturgical practice and patristic legacy, thus revealing the continuity of church tradition. St. Basil the Great sought to return the terrestrial Church to its original state of universal orthodoxy and mutual love, in a certain sense wishing to integrate the entire Church into a sui generis microfaction, if by the the latter we understand the union of like-minded friends.

Nadezda Vinyukova

This article deals with the ministry of the Russian Orthodox Church in prisons with the experience of priest Iosif Iosifovich Fudel’ as an example. He served at Butyrskaya prison in 1892‒1907. The study draws on both archival and published materials, i.e. legislative sources, memoirs of contemporaries, essays and diary of Father Iosif himself. The article sheds light on this period of Father Iosif’s life, whose biography has not been thoroughly studied so far, and shows the role, responsibilities and capabilities of the person in the prison. It also outlines several acute issues of the penitentiary system of that time (degree of punishment, judicial faults, conditions of imprisonment, separation of families, maintenance of children, etc.) The range of the priest’s activities in the prison was truly enormous. Apart from the church service, being a spiritual preceptor, regular visits to all cells, he was responsible for the school, library, infi rmary, as well as dealt with the reunion of families and fi nancial aid to exiles. Having immersed in the milieu of “deprived” ordinary people, Father Iosif, on the one hand, became convinced of the validity of Christian worldview and high standards of the ordinary farmer who was raised in this worldview. On the other hand, he saw the imperfection of the penitentiary system, in many respects inhuman and unable to improve and revive the person. The end of the 15-year long period of his offi ce at Butyrskaya prison fell on the time of the fi rst Russian revolution which signifi cantly changed the situation and types of those imprisoned as well as requirements to the priest. Fudel’s ideas about the pastor’s mission, non-accusatory sermon, and voluntary communication with the fl ock came to be discordant with opinions of the management of the prison. As a result, he was tranferred to the parish of the church of St. Nicholas in Plotniki.

Asəf Qənbərov

Bu məqalədə dini fundamentalizm və radikalizmin Xristianlıq və İslam dini kontekstində təşəkkül tapması və onun ideoloji əsasları tədqiq edilmişdir. Dini fundamentalizm xristian yevangelizm hərəkatı kimi meydana gəlsə də, daha sonra bu xarakteristikaya uyğun gələn digər dini cərəyanlar üçün də istifadə edilmişdir. İslami dini hərəkatların fundamentalizmlə əlaqələndiriliməsi mübahisələrə səbəb olmuşdur. İslam dini özünəməxsus dini-etiqadi təlimləri və təşkilati quruluşu baxımından xristian yevangelizmindən fərqlənir. Belə ki, Kitabi-Müqəddəsin literal izahı, qüsursuzluğu, tarixi faktları ehtiva etməsi və s. fundamentalist ideyalar Xristian dini ənənəsində marginallığı təmsil edir. Halbuki İslamda dinin əsas mənbələrinə Quran və Sünnəyə eyni aspektdən yanaşmaq mümkün deyildir. Müsəlmanların böyük əksəriyyəti İslamın müqəddəs mətnlərinin dəyişikliyə uğramadığına, qüsursuz və faktiki məlumatları ehtiva etdiyinə etiqad edir. Buna baxmayaraq, siyasi aktivliyi ilə seçilən dini hərəkatlar siyasi islam və ya islami aktivizm termini ilə ifadə edilmişdir. Bunlara, əsasən, Seyyid Qütb, Mövdudi və Ayətullah Xomeyninin siyasi-dini ideologiyaları əsasında yaranmış dini cərəyanları daxil edirlər. Siyasi islam, eyni zamanda, radikal dini cərəyanların meydana gəlməsinə müəyyən dərəcədə təsir göstərmişdir.

Anton Voytenko, Inna Golubovich

Publication of a syllabus for hagiology by Georgy Fedotov (1886–1951), a famous fi gure of the Russian Diaspora, historian and philosopher. It is well known that Georgy Fedotov gave the course on hagiology at the Theological Institute in Paris in the second half of the twenties to late thirties of the XXth cent., but its structure and content were not known. The publication of the syllabus allows to understand more clearly the composition and content of the course, which was a kind of «creative laboratory» of Fedotov, and related directly or indirectly to his monographies of «Paris period», such as «Saints of Medieval Russia» and «Spiritual Poetry». The publication is followed by the extensive commentaries. One of their tasks is a comparison the syllabus with the works of Gеоrgy Fedotov, where he concerns issues raised in the course.

Piotr M. Stępień

The article describes the system of historic preservation care provided to the architectural complex of outstanding historical value located on the Wawel Hill. The historic preservation supervision is organised in a very particular way, i.e. responsibilities of the Regional Historic Preservation Officer are delegated to the Head of the Wawel Royal Castle acting as Historic Preservation Officer of the Wawel Hill. His area of competence covers the entire Wawel Hill within the boundaries set forth in the register of historic monuments and sites (A-7), i.e. not only the museum premises and the land on which it is located (owned by the State Treasury) but also church facilities (including Wawel Cathedral) and hill slopes for which Cracow Municipality is responsible. It seems that there are sound reasons behind the scope of historic preservation supervision covering both movable (exhibit items) and immovable (architecture) properties. With regard to Wawel, it is also particularly important to keep this ensemble of great historical significance under joint historic preservation supervision. It is therefore not recommended for three separate bodies, i.e. the museum, the church, and the municipality, to be responsible for this group of historic monuments. This results from the fact that a standardised and uniform concept needs to be defined for this ensemble and a great number of problems pertaining to technical and conservation issues need to be solved comprehensively. Furthermore, this article details duties carried out by Historic Preservation Officer of the Wawel Hill and explores matters for which Regional Conservation Officer is responsible. The author is of the opinion that the organisation of the discussed historic preservation supervision may be a role model for other residences of great historical value and other protected ensembles used as museums.

Joachim Schmiedl

O. GOTOVTSOVA

Based upon a wide range of archive records, the article covers issues relating to particular aspects of life and living standards of silk weaving factory workers’ families in a village of Fryanovo of Moskovski county in XVIII — fi rst quarter of XIX centuries.Workers’ daily life was signifi cantly infl uenced by living conditions. It is via this article that we analyze dimensions and types of living premises provided to workers by the factory owners, as well as its improvements. The Fryanovo factory offi ce records that remain intact allow consideration of issues relating to food for workers, including sources for providing Fryanovo inhabitants with bread and other food products, the composition and the average amount thereof.One chapter of the article is specifi cally devoted to workers’ worship service attendance, as well as diff erences in religion belief of Fryanovo inhabitants. In addition to the orthodox Christian majority of its population, there were also Catholics and Old Believers among its inhabitants.The issues directly relating to working at the silk weaving factory include work schedule and rules, average age of workers, wage payment methods, as well as workers motivation by the silk weaving factory owner. Considered are the issues relating to employment of children and women at the silk weaving factory. An important part of the research relates to living conditions of non-working population groups: young children, retired and handicaps who were given some money or bread, on monthly bases, by silk weaving factory owners.Medical services for the silk weaving factory workers, personal taxation and other fees, participation by factory workers, in recruitments, penalties and fi nes system as implemented by the silk weaving factory in Fryanovo are also within the spectrum of questions that are discussed within the article.The fi nal chapter of the research points out the village inner life issues, such as alcohol abuse among workers, crimes they committed, as well as workers’ interrelations with other neighbor villages inhabitants.In general, the matters considered allow improving understanding the life of workers and their families by large possession enterprises of Russia in XVIII — fi rst quarter of XIX centuries

Gerd Lora

The article is the fi rst attempt to trace in details, basing on inedited archive materials from Russian and Rumanian archives, the history of the secularization of the so called “inclined” monastic properties in the united principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia during the reign of Alexander Kuza. Attempts (though without any suffi cient result) to reduce the rights of the foreign owners of the estates (1/4 of the territory of the country) were undertaken already in the fi rst half of the 19th century. After the Crimean war with weakening of Russian infl uence and strengthening of French one such an action could count on better results. According to Protocol 13 of the Paris Conference of 1858 the Principalities should have solved their problem with the Greek owners of the properties. In case of misunderstanding an international commission consisting of commissioners from the powers had to take place. Such a commission started its work in Constantinople in 1862, and as it’s well preserved documentation shows, did not bring any positive result. Russia was the only to support the rights of the Greek owners, while the position of Britain and Austria was wavering, and France was in open opposition to any actions against the secularization. The inconsistent behavior of the Greek Patriarchs and the attempts of Patriarch Joachim II to turn the aff air in his own benefi t only was in the way of solution of the question. Another idea, of a monetary compensation for the estates was not carried through either, though the Greek bankers of Constantinople seemed ready to support it. Meanwhile Kuza, basing on the support of Napoleon III, carried through the fi nal confi scation of the lands. This act became one of the most suffi cient in his policy for unifi cation of Rumania and creating an independent national state.

Emmanuel Faye

Stefan Schröder