This paper presents FormationEval, an open multiple-choice question benchmark for evaluating language models on petroleum geoscience and subsurface disciplines. The dataset contains 505 questions across seven domains including petrophysics, petroleum geology and reservoir engineering, derived from three authoritative sources using a reasoning model with detailed instructions and a concept-based approach that avoids verbatim copying of copyrighted text. Each question includes source metadata to support traceability and audit. The evaluation covers 72 models from major providers including OpenAI, Anthropic, Google, Meta and open-weight alternatives. The top performers achieve over 97% accuracy, with Gemini 3 Pro Preview reaching 99.8%, while tier and domain gaps persist. Among open-weight models, GLM-4.7 leads at 98.6%, with several DeepSeek, Llama, Qwen and Mistral models also exceeding 93%. The performance gap between open-weight and closed models is narrower than expected, with several lower-cost open-weight models exceeding 90% accuracy. Petrophysics emerges as the most challenging domain across all models, while smaller models show wider performance variance. Residual length bias in the dataset (correct answers tend to be longer) is documented along with bias mitigation strategies applied during construction. The benchmark, evaluation code and results are publicly available.
Currently, the key challenge of the oil-refining industry worldwide is to produce environmentally friendly fuel in large volumes to meet market demand, which is due to strict environmental standards governing the permissible sulfur content in fuel. Natural gas, refinery gas, and coal gas contain acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. These compounds must be removed from the gas stream because of the toxicity of H2S and to prevent the acid gas-induced corrosion of pipelines and facilities. Hydrogen sulfide is released as a result of various industrial processes, and its removal is critical because this compound can cause corrosion and environmental damage even at low concentrations. Sulfur compounds are also present in natural gas, biofuels and other fuel gases used in power plants. This article proposes new adsorbents of natural and waste origin and presents the results of their testing for the removal of acid gases. This paper also considers methods for the preparation of adsorbents from waste and procedures for the removal of sulfur-containing compounds. Using agricultural, industrial waste to produce activated sorbents not only solves the problem of waste disposal but also reduces the cost of desulfurization, contributing to the creation of sustainable and environmentally friendly technologies. The Review Section comprehensively summarizes current research on hydrogen sulfide removal in gas cleaning processes using agricultural and industrial waste as highly efficient adsorbents. In the Experimental Section, 10 composite materials based on natural raw materials and wastes, as well as 6 commercial adsorbents, were synthesized and tested under laboratory conditions. The choice of materials for the adsorbent production was based on the principles of environmental friendliness, availability, and cost-effectiveness. The developed materials based on modified sludge from water treatment plants of thermal power plants are effective sorbents for the purification of gas emissions from petrochemical enterprises. For industrial use, it is necessary to solve the problems of increasing the economic attractiveness of sorbents from waste, the ability of regeneration, the competitive adsorption of pollutants, the use of indicator sorbents, the optimization of operating conditions, and safe waste disposal.
In petroleum refining, catalysts are used to efficiently convert crude oil into valuable products such as fuels and petrochemicals. These catalysts are employed in a range of processes, including catalytic cracking, hydrotreating, and reforming to meet stringent fuel quality standards. This review explores recent advancements in refining catalysts, focusing on novel materials, enhanced synthesis methods, and their industrial applications. The development of nano-, hierarchically structured, and supported metal catalysts has led to significant improvements in catalyst selectivity, yield, and longevity. These innovations are particularly important for processes such as hydrocracking, fluid catalytic cracking, and catalytic reforming, where catalysts improve conversion rates, product quality, and environmental sustainability. Advances in synthesis techniques such as sol-gel processes, microwave-assisted synthesis, and atomic layer deposition have further optimized catalyst performance. Environmental considerations have also driven the development of catalysts that reduce harmful emissions, particularly sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides while promoting green catalysis through the use of bio-based materials and recyclable catalysts. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, particularly in scaling novel materials for industrial use and integrating them with existing technologies. Future research should focus on the exploration of new catalytic materials, such as metal-organic frameworks and multi-functional catalysts, which promise to further revolutionize the refining industry. This review thus demonstrates the transformative potential of advanced catalysts in enhancing the efficiency and environmental sustainability of petroleum refining.
Mateus A. Fernandes, Michael M. Furlanetti, Eduardo Gildin
et al.
Forecasting production reliably and anticipating changes in the behavior of rock-fluid systems are the main challenges in petroleum reservoir engineering. This project proposes to deal with this problem through a data-driven approach and using machine learning methods. The objective is to develop a methodology to forecast production parameters based on simple data as produced and injected volumes and, eventually, gauges located in wells, without depending on information from geological models, fluid properties or details of well completions and flow systems. Initially, we performed relevance analyses of the production and injection variables, as well as conditioning the data to suit the problem. As reservoir conditions change over time, concept drift is a priority concern and require special attention to those observation windows and the periodicity of retraining, which are also objects of study. For the production forecasts, we study supervised learning methods, such as those based on regressions and Neural Networks, to define the most suitable for our application in terms of performance and complexity. In a first step, we evaluate the methodology using synthetic data generated from the UNISIM III compositional simulation model. Next, we applied it to cases of real plays in the Brazilian pre-salt. The expected result is the design of a reliable predictor for reproducing reservoir dynamics, with rapid response, capability of dealing with practical difficulties such as restrictions in wells and processing units, and that can be used in actions to support reservoir management, including the anticipation of deleterious behaviors, optimization of production and injection parameters and the analysis of the effects of probabilistic events, aiming to maximize oil recovery.
This paper presents a new petroleum well logging method - electrical impedance logging for shaly sand reservoirs - through theoretical and petrophysical experimental research. Electrical impedance logging measures the electrical impedance of shaly sand reservoirs, extracts resistivity information from the real part, and uses it to determine the oil saturation of the reservoir quantitatively. The study shows that the resistivity, extracted from the real part of the electrical impedance in shaly sands, has characteristics similar to those of the pure sandstone formation resistivity and can be directly used in Archie's law for oil-bearing interpretation of reservoirs.
This study aims to introduce a new lifetime distribution, called the record-based transformed log-logistic distribution, to the literature. We obtain this distribution using a record-based transformation map based on the distributions of upper record values. We explore some mathematical properties of the suggested distribution, namely the quantile function, hazard function, moments, order statistics, and stochastic ordering. We discuss the point estimation via seven different methods such as maximum likelihood, least squares, weighted least squares, Anderson-Darling, Cramer-von Mises, maximum product spacings, and right tail Anderson Darling. Then, we perform a Monte Carlo simulation study to evaluate the performances of these estimators. Also, we present two practical data examples, reactor pump failure and petroleum rock data to compare the fits of the proposed distribution with its rivals. As a result of data analysis, we conclude that the best-fitted distribution is the record-based transmuted log-logistic distribution for reactor pump failure and petroleum rock data sets.
The chapter presents experimental data, published in numerous source materials and reviews, on the mutual solubility of water in hydrocarbons and hydrocarbons in water, relationship of water solubility in hydrocarbons depending on the structure of the organic compound molecule and the change of solubility as a function of temperature. Possibilities of water solubilization, dissolved and dispersed in hydrocarbons, their mixtures as well as fractions, and petroleum products were analyzed. With the help of turbidimetric measurements, surfactants and mixtures of surfactants with the highest water solubilization capacity in fuels were selected. Different methods of dewatering of distillate fractions, gasolines, and diesel fuels with the use of coalescing partitions were investigated. A number of barrier materials, methods of modifying the structure of the partition, and the hydrophilicity of glass fibers were tested, obtaining very good results in industrial applications.
The research and application of risk analysis and evaluation for underground gas storage facilities are critical due to their diverse equipment, complex process flows, and numerous risk factors. In particular, corrosion failure accidents in ground process pipelines at these facilities have become increasingly common in recent years. Effective and accurate analysis of the causes of these corrosion failures is essential for ensuring the safe operation of underground gas storage facilities. This article presents a risk assessment methodology that leverages data and knowledge fusion. The process begins with a statistical analysis of the corrosion failure data from ground process pipelines in underground gas storage facilities, from which a Bayesian corrosion prediction model is developed. This model serves as the foundation for analyzing the basic events that lead to corrosion failure in these pipelines. Subsequently, a knowledge model of corrosion failure is established, and a detailed analysis of corrosion causes is conducted using the fault tree specific to corrosion failure in ground process pipelines. The importance of each basic event within the fault tree is quantified through the structural importance coefficient assigned to each event. The analysis categorizes the influencing factors of corrosion failure into four main groups. A judgment matrix is then created to determine the relative weight values of these different influencing factors. This matrix is crucial for setting the weight factors in the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation, which ultimately determines the risk level of corrosion failure in ground process pipelines at underground gas storage facilities. By applying examples of corrosion risk assessments for ground process pipelines, this study provides a scientific basis for enhancing safety management and operational practices at underground gas storage facilities.
Petroleum refining. Petroleum products, Gas industry
G. Richard, Sylvester Chibueze Izah, Olalekan Raimi Morufu
et al.
Artisanal petroleum refining (APR) is often the use of rudimentary equipment to process crude oil into different products. APR is rampant in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria and is often outside the boundaries of the state law. Some typical products of the process include gasoline, automated gas oil, and kerosene. Despite the socioeconomic advantages, which include creating jobs, it poses significant environmental and public health concerns. This review focuses on the environmental and human health effects of APR in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria. According to the research findings, these actions have resulted in the loss of arable farmland, plant cover, household and drinking water supplies, and human food sources. In addition, these activities lead to the emission of harmful particles and gases. These pollutants have adverse health effects, including loss of respiratory and cardiovascular functioning, irritation of the sensory organs, and congenital disabilities. In addition, food safety concerns may ensue from improper management of the APR's effects. It is, therefore, necessary to mitigate the dangers linked to APR in Nigeria's Niger Delta area, i.e., through institutional strengthening and licensing of the artisanal petroleum operatives in the region and applying the environmental and petroleum-related laws in Nigeria. Furthermore, the enlightenment of the populace on the dangers of the long-term impact of APR is crucial.
Jeremiah A. Adedeji, Emmanuel Kweinor Tetteh, Mark Opoku Amankwa
et al.
The demand for technological and industrial change has become heavily dependent on the availability and use of petroleum products as a source of energy for socio-economic development. Notwithstanding, petroleum and petrochemical products are strongly related to global economic activities, and their extensive distribution, refining processes, and final routes into the environment pose a threat to human health and the ecosystem. Additional global environmental challenges related to the toxicological impact of air, soil, and water pollutants from hydrocarbons are carcinogenic to animals and humans. Therefore, it is practical to introduce biodegradation as a biological catalyst to address the remediation of petroleum-contaminated ecosystems, adverse impacts, the complexity of hydrocarbons, and resistance to biodegradation. This review presents the bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants in water and soil, focusing on petroleum biodegradable microorganisms essential for the biodegradation of petroleum contaminants. Moreover, explore the mineralization and transformation of complex organic and inorganic contaminants into other simpler compounds by biological agents. In addition, physicochemical and biological factors affecting biodegradation mechanisms and enzymatic systems are expanded. Finally, recent studies on bioremediation techniques with economic prospects for petroleum spill remediation are highlighted.
Cavitation, as a unique technology for influencing liquid substances, has attracted much attention in the oil refining industry. The unique capabilities of cavitation impact can initiate the destruction of molecular compounds in the liquid. At the same time with a large number of successful experimental studies on the treatment of liquid hydrocarbon raw materials, cavitation has not been introduced in the oil refining industry. Often the impossibility of implementation is based on the lack of a unified methodology for assessing the intensity and threshold of cavitation creation. The lack of a unified methodology does not allow for predicting the intensity and threshold of cavitation generation in different fluids and cavitation-generating devices. In this review, the effect of cavitation on various rheological properties and fractional composition of liquid hydrocarbons is investigated in detail. The possibility of using the cavitation number as a single parameter for evaluating the intensity and threshold of cavitation generation is analyzed, and the limitations of its application are evaluated. The prospects of introducing the technology into the industry are discussed and a new vision of calculating the analog of cavitation numbers based on the analysis of the mutual influence of feedstock parameters and geometry of cavitators on each other is presented.
Railya Mukhamadeyeva, Ondassyn Orazov, Saule Mazhikeyeva
et al.
The presented article tells about the placement of countries in terms of reserves and processing volumes. About the state of oil production and oil refining in Kazakhstan and the presence of environmental risks in the transportation of petroleum products. Without the transportation of oil and oil products, economic development is impossible. For Kazakhstan, the possibility of organizing the correct transit of oil and oil products is an urgent task. The profits from transportation should be commensurate with the environmental risks in the event of an accident. To reduce environmental risks, the authors of the article recommend using only modern specialized vehicles, tight control when unloading oil products at small gas stations and huge fines if spills and leaks are allowed. For multimodal transportation, it is recommended to use flexitanks and conduct constant environmental monitoring in the process of transporting oil and oil products. All this can easily be done if there is mandatory certification according to ISO 14000 standards.
Nigeria economy is almost singularly hinged on crude oil and therefore, highly sensitive to internal and external shocks in the oil sector. This study examined the impact of downstream oil deregulation policy on stability in petroleum products in Nigeria. Survey design was used in the methodology of the study. The hypotheses formulated were tested using ordinary least squares linear regression technique. The study revealed that the downstream oil deregulation policy promotes the availability of petroleum products in the economy. The study also revealed that local refining of petroleum products positively impacts on deregulation of the downstream oil policy in the country. It was further revealed from the findings that the removal of petroleum products subsidy and efficient pricing of petroleum products enhances the deregulation of the downstream oil policy in the Nigerian economy. It was recommended that the government should make petroleum products available through efficient liberalization of the downstream sector, remove subsidies, build more refineries or maintain the existing ones and regulate the prices of petroleum products in the country. Government should get all the four refineries working at all costs. This will help to reduce the huge amount of money spent on refined fuel importation and will be diverted to infrastructural development for the economy.
The paper presents the study outcome of the petroleum products world production with a ranking of countries in the industry market and an overview of the maximum and minimum indicators of output volumes. A comparative analysis of the production of petroleum products in 2021 and 2020 by leading countries is given, and the reasons for the decline or growth of indicators are substantiated. The results of the analysis of the dynamics of the volumes of petroleum products produced from 2010 to 2021 for 11 leading countries are disclosed for each country with an introduction to the position of the world's leading oil products manufacturing companies with an overview of their activities, place on the world market, capacity, market capitalization, assortment of petroleum products. Based on the above discussion, the structure of the distribution of countries and regions in the global production of petroleum products is given. The position of the countries on trade in commodity products of oil refining and petrochemistry is disclosed.
Farouk I. Metwalli, Amir Ismail, M.S. Metwally
et al.
The present study aims to integrate a large set of geological and geophysical data into a comprehensive model describing the depositional features of the Abu Madi/El Qar'a/Khilala gas fields. The model is based on the sequence stratigraphic framework of the Abu Madi Formation defined using cores, well logs, and time-migrated seismic data. Seismic trace attribute sections and relative acoustic impedance sections are also used. A possible depositional pattern for the main Level III is established, based on the lithological and petrophysical information derived from the seismic data analysis. The Abu Madi Formation can be regarded as a depositional sequence recording the progressive drowning of the incised valley. The sequence is bounded at the base by an erosional unconformity, created by a drop in the level of the Late Messinian Sea, and at the top by a drowning unconformity related to the Early Pliocene transgression. The bottom of Level II divides the Abu Madi sequence into two smaller sequences. In both sequences, gas-bearing traps can be found in the Lowstand Systems Tracts, represented by the fluvial Level III and fluvial-deltaic Level II, respectively.
Oils, fats, and waxes, Petroleum refining. Petroleum products
HOU Dali, HAN Xin, TANG Hongming, GUO Jianchun, GONG Fengming, SUN Lei, QIANG Xianyu
Adsorbed gas represents a primary mode of shale gas occurrence and is a major source of shale gas production in the later stages of development. It primarily resides within the organic kerogen and clay minerals of shale formations, with organic kerogen being the dominant host. Consequently, the study of organic kerogen characteristics and its adsorption mechanisms is crucial for understanding shale gas development. In this paper, the kerogen of Longmaxi Shale in the Sichuan Basin is taken as the research object. The microstructure of kerogen is expressed by combining methods through the solid-state NMR experiment, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy experiment, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy experiment, and the molecular structure model of kerogen is constructed. The adsorption mechanism and characteristics of CH4 in kerogen of Longmaxi Shale are analyzed by magnetic levitation weight experiment, molecular simulation methods of the Grand Canonical Monte Carlo（GCMC）, and Molecular Dynamics（MD）. The results show that the molecular formula of the kerogen of shale experimental sample of Longmaxi Formation is C237H219O21N5S4. The excess adsorption gas volume of CH4 in kerogen increase first and then decreased with the increase of pressure. Under the same pore size and pressure, the excess adsorption gas volume and total gas volume of CH4 decrease with the increase in temperature. The C and S atoms in kerogen are the main cause of CH4 adsorption. The CH4 near the kerogen pore wall presents an adsorption state, while the CH4 far from the kerogen pore wall presents a free state. As the pore size increase, the distance between the two peaks of CH4 density gradually increases, and the peak value decreases gradually.
Petroleum refining. Petroleum products, Gas industry
The main sand-control layer of the porous metal screen is made of metal with excellent high temperature resistance and corrosion resistance.Due to its special three-dimensional pore structure,the screen has strong permeability and flow capacity.It has good applicability in conventional cold production and development in oil and gas fields.In order to further evaluate the adaptability of the screen under the conditions of heavy oil thermal development,multi-round of steam huff and puff simulation experiments were carried out to simulate the change of sand control effect of the screen in the process of multi-round of steam huff and puff stimulation,and analyze the pressure,temperature,sand production and sand particle size of the screen during the injection and production process.The experimental results show that after 16 rounds of steam huff and puff experiments(the maximum steam temperature is 350 ℃,and the maximum injection pressure is 17 MPa),the sand concentration of the screen ranges from 1.86×10<sup>-7</sup>% to 6.63×10<sup>-6</sup>%,the median particle size of the sand is slightly smaller than the sand control accuracy of the screen,and the permeability retention capacity is about 85.7%.The overall flow capacity and anti-plugging performance retention rate of the screen is good.The experimental conclusion fully proves that the screen has an excellent adaptability in the development of heavy oil thermal recovery reservoirs.
Chemical engineering, Petroleum refining. Petroleum products
Ruud Weijermars, Umair bin Waheed, Kanan Suleymanli
A key aim of this paper is to explore how our professional tasks as geoscientists and petroleum engineers can be completed more effectively making use of tools powered by Artificial Intelligence (AI), offered in commercial platforms now readily available to individual users. This paper intends to provide some guidance, but at the same time does not claim to be comprehensive or conclusive in any way. The paper presents a utility assessment from the research and teaching vantage points of two professors and one student, from geosciences and petroleum engineering departments. After a brief overview of the new technologies, some key questions raised include: How can one assess originality of class papers by students and research papers by their professors? How will the contribution of intelligent devices be acknowledged? Will the presentation of conference papers by author avatars be accepted by the organizing committee?
The petroleum industry is crucial for modern society, but the production process is complex and risky. During the production, accidents or failures, resulting from undesired production events, can cause severe environmental and economic damage. Previous studies have investigated machine learning (ML) methods for undesired event detection. However, the prediction of event probability in real-time was insufficiently addressed, which is essential since it is important to undertake early intervention when an event is expected to happen. This paper proposes two ML approaches, random forests and temporal convolutional networks, to detect undesired events in real-time. Results show that our approaches can effectively classify event types and predict the probability of their appearance, addressing the challenges uncovered in previous studies and providing a more effective solution for failure event management during the production.
Abstract The petroleum refining industry is an important energy conversion sector, providing both products and raw materials to a wide range of end-use sectors, including the transportation and chemical industries. This study uses a typical refinery process flow to develop a complex refining system by characterizing technical features and interrelationships of the refining units. Using this system we were able to develop the MESSAGEix-petroleum refining model to analyze energy consumption and emissions at the refining process level. The results indicate that China’s petroleum refining industry could reduce total energy use, circulation water consumption, and softened water consumption by 12%, 7%, and 80%, respectively. Additionally, the petroleum refining industry could reduce CO2, NOx, SO2, and PM2.5 emissions by 10%, 4%, 2%, and 1%, respectively, by 2050. However, emission sources have a significant influence on the emission reduction effect, and the reduction potential obtained through energy efficiency strategies is limited, especially for air pollutants. Therefore, policymakers should consider combining energy-efficiency measures and specific air pollution control options to better reach multiple targets. Finally, further directions for enhancing the representation of relevant subsectors in MESSAGEix are given.