This discourse puts forward arguments for the complete validity of Pedersen’s Law, also called ‘Lex RUKI’, in Proto-Baltic (or an early Baltic dialect) in all positions. This conclusion was formulated based on an analysis of the early Baltic borrowings into Finnic.
The present study examines the diachronic development and renewal of demonstrative systems in the Finnic languages within the Circum-Baltic context. Drawing on usage-based data from existing Finnic corpora, the reconstruction addresses historical changes from Proto-Finnic to modern Finnic, identifying processes of reduction and restructuring, while unveiling also obsoletion of specific demonstrative forms. The analysis reveals that while Finnish and Karelian proper retain relatively archaic tripartite systems, Livonian, North Estonian, Votic, and Veps display substantial renewal, often leading to bipartite or monopartite paradigms. Comparative evidence indicates that contact with Slavic, and to a lesser extent Baltic and Germanic languages, played a key role in shaping these developments. Parallels with Russian compound demonstratives and Old East Slavic forms highlight recurring patterns of areal diffusion and contact-induced change within wider Circum-Baltic language ecology. At a theoretical level, the findings affirm the instability of demonstratives as a grammatical category prone to contact influence. Kokkuvõte. Chingduang Yurayong: Läänemeresoome keelte demonstratiivsüsteemide uuendamine Läänemere keeleliidu kontekstis. Uurimus käsitleb demonstratiivide diakroonilist arengut ja uuendamist läänemeresoome keeltes Läänemere keeleliidu kontekstis. Tuginedes olemasolevate läänemeresoome keelte korpuste kasutuspõhistele andmetele, käsitleb rekonstruktsioon ajaloolisi muutusi alates läänemeresoome algkeelest tänapäeva läänemeresoome keelteni ja toob esile süsteemide lihtsustumise, ümberkorraldumise ja paradigmade uuendamise protsesse, samuti konkreetsete demonstratiivsete vormide kasutusest välja jäämise. Analüüs näitab, et kuigi soome ja karjala keeled on säilitanud suhteliselt arhailised kolmetasandilised süsteemid, on liivi, põhjaeesti, vadja ja vepsa keeles toimunud märkimisväärsed uuendused, mis on viinud kahe- või üheosaliste paradigmadeni. Võrdlevad andmed osutavad nende arengute kujunemisel slaavi ning vähemal määral balti ja germaani keelte mõjule. Paralleelid vene liitdemonstratiivide ja vanaidaslaavi vormidega rõhutavad areaalse leviku ja kontaktmuutuste korduvaid mustreid laiemas Läänemere keeleliidu kontekstis. Teoreetilisel tasandil tõstab uurimus esile demonstratiivide ebastabiilsust grammatilise kategooriana, mis on keelekontaktide mõjudele kalduv.
The work proposes an analysis of lexical data from the Baltic-Finnish linguistic continuum. For the most part, these materials can be considered as sub-texts. On the basis of an etymological reading of a dialect lexicon of Baltic-Finnish origin with the adoption of linguistic geography methods, some aspects of phonetic and semantic use of subtractive units are generalized, as well as some facts of semantic influence on Russian sub-dialects, so-called semantic сalcs. It is noted that in a number of cases there is a departure from the traditional form of the word with an attempt to find a motivating basis on native soil. Sometimes it is quite difficult to determine the direction of the influence of a particular semantic model. education, the same or similar motivational basis for nomination is used in these cases. In most cases, the sub-unit enters into the lexical system of speech, which leads to its full functional inclusion. Based on the specifics of denothate, our materials most often fix metaphorical translations. In the contact areas, there are data that are very frequent on Baltic-Finnish soil, which sometimes leads to the penetration and development on the Russian dialect soil of some frequency in speech of verb paradigms.
IN CURRENT VIKING-AGE STUDIES, slaves are brought forward as the main commodity creating the flow of dirhams from Islamic regions to Eurasia and Scandinavia. This article instead stresses Pre-Viking and later fur hunting as the primary factor driving the Svear and other Scandinavian peoples eastwards and it presents the geographical and economic shifts in the eastern fur trade from the 7th century to the High Middle Ages. Through artefacts, scientific analyses and written sources we can show how the social impact of different actors at the northern end of the fur-trade network varied over time. In this way, a new picture of Scandinavian expansion to the east emerges with a higher chronological resolution, one that emphasises a more prominent role played by the Baltic Finns and the Sámi.
Eesti keele kui teise keele algtaseme õppijaile valmistab kuulamine sageli raskusi ja tekitab stressi. Kuulamisoskuse arenemiseks on vaja kuulata palju huvitavaid ja jõukohaseid tekste, mida eesti keele A-taseme õppijaile napib. Artiklis vaadeldakse, kuidas arendusuuringu käigus püüti luua täiskasvanud A1-taseme õppijaile kuulamisoskust arendav kogumik, mis ei põhjustaks õppijaile stressi, vaid tekitaks palju rõõmu. Kogumikus on 12 teemat, mis sisaldavad 79 teksti, 82 ülesannet ja 322 õppeotstarbelist pilti. Materjali koostamisel on silmas peetud huvitavust (elulisust, tänapäevasust, emotsionaalsust) ja jõukohasust. Kogumikku on katsetatud A1-taseme õpperühmadega, kellele oli kuulamine jõukohane ja väga huvitav, tekitas vähe stressi ning pakkus palju rõõmu.
***
Listening – stress or joy? Compilation of Estonian A1-level listening material for adult learners
For beginners of Estonian as a second language, developing listening skills often causes difficulties and stress. In order to learn listening skills, it is necessary to listen to a lot of interesting and relevant texts, which is lacking for A-level learners of Estonian. The listening tasks prepared for the listening texts enhance the development of listening skills.
The article examines a development study during which a listening skill development collection was created for adult A1 level learners, the aim of which was to reduce the listening anxiety of beginner Estonian learners and increase the joy of listening. In the first stage of the development study, the initial version of the collection was created, with an eye toward the modernity, vitality, interest and affordability of the material.
In the second stage, the created material was tested with two A1-level study groups (n = 14). During the experiment, feedback was collected both from the learners and from the research diary of one of the teachers. Based on the received feedback, the material was supplemented. The finished collection contains 12 topics, which contain 79 texts, 82 tasks and 322 images for educational purposes. The collection was also analyzed with a language analyzer, and the results showed that the collection corresponds to the A1 level. For the learners who tested the material, listening was very interesting, caused little stress and brought a lot of joy.
This book includes twelve articles that present new research on the Finnic and Baltic languages spoken in the southern and eastern part of the Circum-Baltic area. It aims to elaborate on the various contact situations and (dis)similarities between the languages of the area. Taking an areal, comparative, or sociolinguistic perspective, the articles offer new insights into the grammatical, semantic, pragmatic, and textual patterns of different types of predicates or nouns or consider the variation of grammatical categories from a typological perspective. The qualitative analyses find support in quantitative data collected from language corpora or written sources, including those representing the less studied varieties of the area.
Artiklis tutvustatakse Eesti Keele Instituudis (EKI) arendatavaid eesti keele kui teise keele õpet toetavaid ressursse, mis on koondatud keeleportaali Sõnaveeb veebirakendusse Õpetaja Tööriistad. Selle moodulid – sõnavara, grammatika, kasutusolukorrad ja teksti hindamine – moodustavad terviku, pakkudes keeleõpetajatele ja keeleõppega seotud spetsialistidele abi kursuste kavandamisel ning õppematerjalide, harjutusvara ja testide koostamisel.
Metodoloogilise raamistiku loomisel ja keeleoskustasemete määramisel on lähtekohaks Euroopa keeleõppe raamdokument (CEFR 2001, eestikeelne versioon Raamdokument 2007), selle sõsarväljaanded (CEFR/CV 2018, CEFR/CV 2020), Euroopa Nõukogu noorte õppijate tasemekirjeldused vanustele 7–10 (Szabo 2018a) ja 11–15 (Szabo 2018b) ning Eesti-sisesed keeleoskustasemeid puudutavad õigusaktid. Keeleliste andmete allikad on peamiselt aastatel 2018–2020 EKI-s loodud eesti keele kui teise keele õpikute ja õppijakeele korpused.
Artiklis kirjeldatakse tööriistamoodulite loomise ja esituse põhimõtteid, tuuakse välja esile kerkinud probleemid ning võimalikud edasiarendused.
***
Estonian as a Second Language Teacher’s Tools in the Institute of Estonian Language’s Language Portal Sõnaveeb
The paper presents the interim results of the project Teacher’s Tools (Õpetaja tööriistad) published as a subpage of the language portal Sõnaveeb. The toolbox includes four modules: vocabulary, grammar, language use situations and text evaluation. The tools are aimed to help second language teachers and specialists plan courses, create new educational materials, exercises and tests.
The methodological framework and CEFR level evaluation for Teacher’s Tools is based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (2001), its Companion Volume with New Descriptors (2018), Collated Representative Samples of Descriptors of Language Competences Developed for Young Learners for Ages 7–10 (Szabo 2018a) and 11–15 (Szabo 2018b) and Estonian legislation on the topic. The methodology is adapted from similar projects for other languages (e. g. Capel 2010, 2012, O’Keeffe, Geraldine 2017, Alfter et al 2019).
In order to gather linguistic data the Institute of Estonian Language compiled Estonian language coursebook and learner’s language corpuses in 2018–2020. First, the textbooks were studied for creating wordlists and analysis of explicit grammar teaching. Second, the results were validated by experts and compared to the wordlists created on the basis of learners’ texts.
The vocabulary and grammar modules represent CEFR-based lexical and grammar profiles for learners of Estonian as a Second Language. The lexical profile covers both young (preA1–B2) and adult (A1–C1) learners, the grammar profile the young learners (pre A1–B2). The text evaluation module runs on morphological analyser estNLTK v 1.6 and marks lemmas in texts according to their CEFR-assignment in vocabulary profile. The language use situation module is mainly based on the descriptors for young learners (Szabo 2018a, 2018b) and is to offer information about the typical situations where the learner should be able to communicate.
The aim of this article is to reveal the dynamics of the museum narrative of Jewish history in the contexts of Lithuanian historical culture in the period 1990–2020. Seeing the tensions between ethnocentric and polycentric, civic, civilizational models of identity in historical culture, the topic of Jewish history representation was chosen because of its complicated integration into the scheme of ethnocentric national narrative. The study shows that the museum representations of Jewish history are increasing in number and becoming more various in themes and forms. That was predetermined by the changes in the political conjuncture and public memory and by individual initiatives.
The article presents a semantic-motivational analysis of twenty Baltic-Finnic dialect and literary language words used to nominate a hard-working person. The source of the material was the dialect dictionaries of individual Baltic-Finnish languages and their file cabinets. The data of etymological dictionaries are also involved. The undertaken research was carried out in line with ethnolinguistics, which is developing successfully in Slavic linguistics, despite the fact that practically no such studies were conducted on the material of the Baltic-Finnish languages. Involving as a comparison the corresponding results according to the Russian dialects showed that the linguistic image of the hardworking is characterized by certain universals in the motivation for naming. However, the Baltic-Finnish units differ in their specificity. The nominations of hardworking people are secondary in them and go back to the names, on the one hand, of dynamic qualities ‘quick, brisk, energetic’, on the other hand, spiritual characteristics (‘enthusiastic, passionate, greedy’) that turn out to be etymologically closely related. It was revealed that they correlate with the basics marking fast, sharp, intense movement - from walking to a blow or a gust of wind. At the same time, a significant part of the verbs of this series can be confidently qualified as having a descriptive, onomatopoeic nature, which is also inherited by the names of hard workers. The revealed regularity of semantic evolution (‘quick abrupt movement’ → ‘fast, energetic, passionate’ → ‘hardworking’) is important for establishing the etymological sources of words that represent the idea of hard work, as it defines a certain algorithm for such a search. Now the lexemes representing the established semantic paradigm are actually divorced according to different etymological articles and the connection between them is most often not indicated in any way.
The aim of the report is to introduce the author‘s point of view concerning the dilemma between dissent and conformism based on Lithuanian investigations and archival documents. The prevailing chronological frames are defined by the fifth decade of the twentieth century up to second decade of the twenty-first century. The report seeks to answer the following questions: 1) is it possible to define universal criteria for dissent and conformism investigation? Is it possible to draw a clear line between such converging meanings as resistance and dissent, dissent and conformism, conformism and obedience, conformism and surrender, conformism and betrayal, conformism and self-sacrifice? Do such dividing lines exist at all? 2) what kind of category dissent and conformism are – legal or moral? In case their nature is legal – then first of all we should talk about (dis)obedience to certain legislative norms and qualify certain activities or stand in the light of law. In case their nature is moral – then we have the case of individual or collective choice in between human values. Though in Lithuania like in a number of other occupied countries dissent and conformism are directly related both: to individual freedom as well to nation and state independence aspirations, the nature of these phenomena lies in the person and his or her personal relationship with the values. Such a choice should be treated like an inevitable existential exam to every human generation, to each of us.
In 2018, the Livonian cultural space was added to the Latvian National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage, a step towards inclusion in the corresponding UNESCO list. This article seeks to document the present state of Livonian intangible cultural heritage, especially Livonian language, on the Livonian Coast. Currently, this territory is not visually demarcated and is divided among three local governments. This split also can be seen in the display of information. Signs and displays use Livonian, but their quality should be improved. Though the Latvian State Language Law states that Livonian and Latvian names can be used together on the Livonian Coast, no official bilingual signs exist. Tourism business operators rarely use Livonian heritage in their offerings. Community organisations have been more active in this regard. At their events, one can become acquainted with the cultural heritage of this region and hear Livonian.
Kokkuvõte. Baiba Šuvcāne, Valts Ernštreits: Liivi pärandi otsinguil Liivi rannal. 2018. aastal kanti liivi kultuuriruum Läti rahvusliku vaimse kultuuripärandi nimekirja, et järgnevalt viia see vastavasse UNESCO nimekirja. Artikli eesmärk on dokumenteerida liivi vaimse kultuuripärandi olukorda tänapäeval, seda eriti liivi keele ajaloolisel kasutusalal Kuramaa Liivi rannas. Praegu on Liivi rand visuaalselt märgistamata ala, mis on jagatud kolme omavalitsuse vahel. Halduslik killustatus kajastub ka teabe paigutamisel. Viitadel ja stendidel on kasutatud liivi keelt, kuid liivikeelse teabe kvaliteet vajab parandamist. Ehkki Läti keeleseaduses on sätestatud, et Liivi rannas on lubatud kohtade ja organisatsioonide nimetustes kasutada läti keele kõrval ka liivi keelt, ei ole tänaseni paigaldatud ühtegi ametlikku kakskeelset silti. Ka turismiettevõtjad on loiud liivi pärandi, sealhulgas liivi keele kaasamisega oma reklaaminfosse. Aktiivsemad on ühiskondlikud organisatsioonid, kelle korraldatud üritustel on Liivi rannas võimalik tundma õppida mitmekesist kohalikku kultuuripärandit ja kuulda liivi keelt, mis ühendab liivi kultuuriruumi erinevaid tahke.
Märksõnad: vaimne pärand, keele dokumenteerimine, keelekeskkond, keeleline maastik, liivi keel
Kubbõvõttõks. Baiba Šuvcāne, Valts Ernštreits. Līvõd rāndas līvõd pierāndõkst vȯtšõs. 2018. āigast lopāndõksõl Līvõd īlma sai kēratõd Lețmō Rov vaimliz pierāndõks nimkerrõ ja īrgiz eņtš riek UNESCO nimkēra vōŗțõ. Kēra nīžõb iļ sīe, kui tǟdõl pandõb līvõd vaimli pierāndõks, īžkiz kēļ, um tämpõ Līvõd rāndas. Tämpõ Līvõd rānda äb ūo riekmīen nǟdõb ja um jagdõd kuolm mōgõr vail. Se um nǟdõb ka tieut äbīdlimizõs lagtimizõs Līvõd rāndas. Šiltõd ja stendõd pǟl um kȭlbatõd ka līvõ kīeldõ, bet tieut kvalitētõ vȯlks tīemõst jo paŗīmõks. Sīel īž āigal, laz kil Lețmō Vald kīel pandõks kītõb, ku Līvõd rāndas kūožnimīs ja mūši nimīs lețkīel kūoral võib kȭlbatõ ka līvõ kīeldõ, tämpiz sōņõ äb ūo tīedõd mitīdtõ kōdkēļiz šiltõ. Ka turism jeddõvõtājizt äb võrkõt tarmõ võimizt tundtõbõks sōdõ līvõd pierāndõksõks, ka līvõ kīelkõks. Täs jo kierdõd āt seļtšõd – nänt suggimižis Līvõd rāndas võib nǟdõ setmiņpūoļizt kultūr pierāndõkst ja kūlõ līvõ kīeldõ, mis um Līvõd īlma arīdi īdõkubbõ palštiji element.
Long-lasting and intense contacts between Finnic and Baltic tribes resulted in the linguistic and material intertwining of the cultures of these two groups, which belong to two different language families. This article concentrates on some interesting connections between both cultures, while attempting to explain and illustrate language contacts using the archaeological record. First, some semantically connected groups of Baltic loanwords in Proto-Finnic will be analysed in order to establish their time and place of borrowing. Next, the Late Bronze Age contacts will be shown to have been the most intensive. The borrowing of the Finnic name Kalev/Kaleva from Baltic kalvis/kalējs ‘smith’, which first was argued in my earlier paper written in Estonian (Lang 2012), is among the evidence for the intensity of these contacts. This is followed by a discussion of bronze work and the casting of bronze rings by these smiths or kalevs , and ends with an examination of the use of these rings as offerings and for taxation. Kokkuvote. Valter Lang: Laanemeresoome–balti kontaktid arheoloogiliste ja keeleliste andmete alusel. Alglaanemeresoome ja idapoolsete balti hoimude pikaaegsed ja tihedad kontaktid toid kaasa nende kahe eri keelkonda kuuluva ruhma materiaalse ja vaimse kultuuri (sh keele) labipoimumise. Artikkel keskendub moningatele huvipakkuvatele seostele molema ruhma kultuuris, puudes keelekontakte selgitada ja naitlikustada arheoloogilise andmestikuga. Koigepealt kasitletakse monda balti laensonade semantiliselt seotud ruhma alglaanemeresoome keeles eesmargiga teha kindlaks nende laenamise aeg ja koht. Seejarel iseloomustatakse lahemalt koige intensiivsemaid, nooremal pronksiajal aset leidnud kontakte, analuusides sealhulgas voimalust tuletada laanemeresoome Kalev/Kaleva nime balti sonast kalvis/kalējs tahendusega ‘sepp’, mida autor esmakordselt pohjendas uhes oma varasemas eestikeelses artiklis (Lang 2012). See teema viib lopuks valja pronksi ja eriti pronksvorude valmistamiseni nendesamade seppade voi kalevite poolt ning nende vorude kasutamiseni ohverdamisel ja maksustamisel. Marksonad: arheoloogia ja keel, laanemeresoome-balti kontaktid, pronksiaeg, pronksvorud pronksi varuna ja ohverdus- ning maksuvahendina Kubbovottoks. Valter Lang: Vāldamiersūomlizt–baltod siḑmod arheolōgij ja kīel tīetokst pūoj pǟl. Vāldamiersūomlizt ja mōgorpūolizt baltod sugūd pitkāāigaližist ja sagdižist siḑmist sugīz nant kǭd īžkiz kīelkub jagūd materiāliz ja vaimliz kultūr (neiīž kīeld) lebbopaļstimi. Kēra kontsentrīerob mȯlmod kultūrod mingizt interesantod siḑmod pǟlo, kǭļos seļțo ja nagțoboks tīedo arheologilizt tīetoks abkoks. Amājedso sōbod vaņtoltod baltod kēļsti tapīņțod sonād mingizt semantilizt gruppo nant tapīņțimiz āiga ja kūož vizāks tīemiz pierāst. Sīetagān sōb traktod amā intensīvod, nūorimiz brōnza aigizt siḑmod ilā, vaņtlos voimizt seļțo vāldamiersūomo nimmo Kalev/Kaleva balto sonāst kalvis/kalējs ‘siepā, kaļāj’, neiku autor um siedā ežmoks pūojton ēsti kīelso (Lang 2012). Lopāndoksoks vīb se temāt brōnza ja īžkiz brōnza rīnkod tagāmiz jūr nant īž kaļājd pūold ja nant rīnkod kȭlbatimiz jūr upportomiz ja maksūd votāmiz jūs.