Hasil untuk "Finnic. Baltic-Finnic"

Raili Pool, Maarika Teral

Artikkel käsitleb keeleteadlike täiskasvanute kogemusi ja eelistusi eesti keele grammatika õppimisel. Uurimismaterjaliks on 12 poolstruktureeritud intervjuud informantidega, kellel on eesti keele õppimiseks suur sisemine motivatsioon ning kes on suhteliselt lühikese ajaga saavutanud kõrge eesti keele oskuse taseme. Kõik intervjueeritud olid materjali kogumise perioodil üliõpilase staatuses ning kõigi peaeriala oli seotud eesti keele või keeleteadusega. Intervjuudest selgub, et keeleteadlikud õppijad peavad grammatikat kui keele vundamenti oluliseks ning leiavad, et grammatika põhjalik tundmine laiendab eesti keele kasutusvõimalusi. Uurimuses osalejad eelistavad eksplitsiitset grammatikaõpet, tunnetavad vormidevaheliste seoste mõistmise vajalikkust ja peavad oluliseks grammatilist täpsust ning korrigeerivat tagasisidet. Materjal näitab, et informandid on teadlikud sellest, kuidas nad eelistavad eesti keele grammatikat õppida, neid iseloomustab oskus keele struktuuri ja enda keeleõppekogemust analüüsida ning valmisolek oma grammatikapädevust edasi arendada. *** "The experiences and preferences of motivated language learners in studying Estonian grammar" The article examines the experiences and preferences of motivated and linguistically aware adult learners in studying Estonian grammar. This study draws on data from semi-structured interviews. These were conducted with 12 informants who demonstrated strong intrinsic motivation to learn Estonian and attained advanced proficiency in Estonian in a relatively brief timespan. All informants had begun learning Estonian while living abroad, either independently or at a foreign university, and later moved to Estonia to pursue more in-depth studies of the language at university level. Collectively, the informants represented nine different first languages or language combinations. At the time of the interviews (spring 2024), all participants were university students, with their main field of study related to Estonian or linguistics. The aim of the article is to explore how motivated and linguistically aware learners perceive the role of grammar in learning Estonian, and how they prefer to study Estonian grammar. The interview data were analysed using qualitative content analysis and directed coding. The interviews indicate that the informants regard grammar as a crucial foundation for language proficiency and recognise that a thorough understanding of grammar enhances their ability to use Estonian effectively. The participants prefer explicit grammar instruction and express a desire to receive explanations about the formation and use of grammatical structures from teachers or other speakers of the language. In the tradition of teaching Estonian – a morphologically rich language –educational materials typically highlight the basic forms of nouns and verbs and emphasise learning morphology through understanding relationships between forms. The informants in this study consider the acquisition of basic forms and the understanding of inter-form relationships to be beneficial, noting that knowing only a single form of a word would significantly restrict its use in communication. While grammar exercises are perceived as useful for learning, they are not always regarded as an enjoyable method. As linguistically aware learners, the informants are able to compare aspects of Estonian grammar with those of other foreign languages they have studied, and they benefit from recognising cross-linguistic similarities. A characteristic learning strategy among these participants is their ability to closely observe the language in their surroundings, notice linguistic structures, analyse them, and relate them to their existing knowledge. The interviews also reveal that most informants consider grammatical accuracy an important goal in learning Estonian and strive to use the language correctly. Only a few participants indicated that accuracy was not a priority for them. Corrective feedback plays a crucial role in achieving accuracy, and all informants value it – particularly written corrections provided by teachers. The study demonstrates that the informants are aware of their preferred methods for learning Estonian grammar and possess the ability to analyse both language structures and their own language learning experiences.

Ann Veismann, Mariann Proos, Piia Taremaa

Artiklis käsitleme asendiverbi seisma polüseemiat. Kasutame mõisteliste tunnuste hindamise katset uurimaks, kuidas eesti keele kõnelejad seisma eri tähendusi tajuvad. Palusime eesti keele kõnelejatel hinnata seisma tähenduste seotust viie tunnusega, mis peegeldavad füüsilise seismise kogemust: vertikaalsus, kontakt, tasakaal, võimelisus ja liikumisvõime. Kasutasime katses samu lauseid nagu Renate Pajusalu (2001a. Kas moos ja buss seisavad sarnaselt ehk väike katse verbiga „seisma“. Toim Reet Kasik, Keele kannul. Pühendusteos Mati Erelti 60. sünnipäevaks, 250–274. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus). Tulemusi analüüsisime klasteranalüüsi ja segamudeldamise teel. Klasteranalüüsis jagunesid laused rühmadesse, põhihargnemisega konkreetseteks ja abstraktseteks kasutusteks, mis omakorda jagunesid väiksemateks tähenduslikeks rühmadeks. Segamudelite abil leidsime, et rühmade tekkimisel olid statistiliselt olulised kõik viis tunnust (vertikaalsus, tasakaal, kontakt, võimelisus ja liikumisvõime). Erinevate statistiliste analüüside tulemusi kombineerides järeldasime, et kõige tugevamalt olid eesti keele kõnelejate jaoks füüsilised seisma tähendused seotud vertikaalsuse ja liikumisvõimega, kuid abstraktsete seisma tähenduste seotus tunnustega ei olnud nii selgepiiriline. See tulemus viitab asjaolule, et seisma abstraktsed tähendused ei tugine üheselt seismise füüsilisele kogemusele ning seos füüsilise seismise ja seisma abstraktsete tähenduste vahel vajab edasist uurimist. Abstract. Ann Veismann, Mariann Proos, Piia Taremaa: Are jam and bus still standing? Polysemy of seisma ‘to stand’ in Estonian and the physical experience of standing. The present paper takes the polysemy of the Estonian position verb seisma ‘to stand’ as its focus. We use a conceptual feature rating task to find out how Estonian speakers perceive the different meanings of seisma ‘to stand’. We used sentences from Renate Pajusalu (2001a. Kas moos ja buss seisavad sarnaselt ehk väike katse verbiga „seisma“. In Reet Kasik (ed.), Keele kannul. Pühendusteos Mati Erelti 60. sünnipäevaks, 250–274. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus) to represent the meanings and asked native Estonian speakers to rate the connection of these sentences to five features: verticality, contact, balance, enablement, and mobility. We applied hierarchical clustering and mixed-effects modelling to analyse the results. For Estonian speakers, verticality and ability to move are the features most connected to the physical experience of standing. Abstract meanings of seisma, however, did not show such uniform behaviour. This result suggests that the abstract meanings of seisma ‘to stand’ are not based on the physical experience of standing in a clear-cut manner, and that the connection between abstract meanings of seisma and the physical experience of standing requires more research attention.

Kais Allkivi-Metsoja

Keeleoskustaseme automaatseks hindamiseks on tarvis kindlaks teha mõõdetavad tunnused, mis võimaldavad eri tasemete keelekasutust usaldusväärselt määrata. Siinses artiklis on tähelepanu keskmes eesti keele A2–C1-taseme eksamitekstide käändsõnatunnused. Analüüsitakse käändsõnavormide sagedust ja varieerumist nii summaarselt kui ka eri käändsõnaliikide võrdluses. Tuuakse välja need tunnused, mis on korrelatsioonis keeleoskustasemega ja muutuvad kasvavas või kahanevas suunas, piiritledes järjestikuseid tasemeid. Läbivalt eristavate tunnustena tulevad esile tekstis leidunud käänete arv ning ainsuse ja mitmuse kasutus. Erinevused käändsõnade vormides ilmnevad eelkõige B1–C1-tasemel, olulisemad muutused on seotud saava, nimetava ja omastava käändega. *** Use of nominals in Estonian A2–C1-level exam writings In this study, natural language processing (NLP) is used to analyse nominal inflection in Estonian proficiency examination writings representing the CEFR levels A2–C1. The aim is to define the nominal features that distinguish learner language production at each proficiency level. For this purpose, the frequency and variation of inflectional forms are measured in two ways: a) for the nominal parts of speech (PoSs) in total, i.e., considering the use of nouns, pronouns, adjectives and numerals; b) for nouns, pronouns and adjectives individually (numerals were discarded due to low frequency). The analysed corpus contains 480 texts, 120 for each level. Nominal features based on the grammatical categories of number, case and degree of comparison are extracted from the morphologically tagged and manually corrected output of the Stanza NLP toolkit. Relevant features are selected according to the following criteria: they correlate with the proficiency level, their values change monotonically, and there are statistically significant differences between (some) adjacent levels. A2–C1-level texts are consistently distinguished by the number of cases used in the text as well as the ratio of singular and plural forms. The changes in the frequency of nominal inflectional forms mainly occur from level B1 to C1. The use of translative, nominative and genitive case are more strongly related to the text level, while partitive, inessive, elative and comitative case and comparative adjectives also differentiate some levels. Furthermore, the study indicates that it is beneficial to observe inflection-based features separately for each PoS when analysing L2 development. Firstly, the PoSspecific frequencies of some grammatical categories increase at different stages of proficiency. Secondly, changes may emerge for certain PoSs only. The identified criterial features could be used for automated assessment of Estonian L2 writings alongside lexical, syntactic and other linguistic features. The results can also help to specify the CEFR level descriptions for Estonian.

Mikael Varjo

This article focuses on the variation of subject expression in modal constructions of necessity with pitää ‘must, have to’ in Finnish everyday conversations. In spoken Finnish, subjects are typically encoded with both a pronominal and a verbal marker although in principle it is possible to omit the pronominal subject. The modal verbs of necessity, however, are unipersonal which means that the verb does not show agreement with the person of the subject. Omitting the pronominal subject altogether is common in necessity constructions, typically resulting in a so-called zero-person construction which is a type of referentially open personal construction in Finnish. The present article sets out to explore the semantico-grammatical and discourse features of necessity constructions without an overt grammatical subject comparing them with those with a speech act pronoun as their subject. The Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM) is employed to model the differences in the characteristics of the two constructions. After an overview of the statistical results, the article goes on to provide a qualitative analysis of the statistically significant differences. The quantitative findings indicate that different types of subject expression are entwined in the semantico-grammatical and discoursive characteristics of the modal constructions of necessity. The qualitative analysis then shows how these differences are reflected in the ways in which they are used as interactional resources. Kokkuvõte. Mikael Varjo: Enam kui null? Referentsiaalselt erilised ja avatud netsessiivkonstruktsioonid soome argivestlustes. Käesolevas artiklis uuritakse grammatilise subjekti vaheldumist. Võrdlen omavahel soomekeelses argivestluses esinevaid pitää-verbiga moodustatud modaalseid netsessiivkonstruktsioone, mis esinevad kas subjektita või sisaldavad kõneaktis osalevat subjekti positsioonis pronoomenit (pronoomensubjekti). Soome keeles tähistatakse grammatilist subjekti tüüpiliselt nii pronoomeni kui ka pöördelõpuga, kuigi põhimõtteliselt võib subjekti funktsioonis pronoomeni ära jätta. Netsessiivverbid on siiski vaegpöördelised, esinedes ainult ainsuse 3. pöörde vormis, mis tähendab seda, et verb ei ühildu subjektiga. Netsessiivkonstruktsiooni puhul on tavaline pronoomensubjekti täielik ärajätt, mille tulem on nn üldisikuline konstruktsioon (nollapersoonarakenne) – soome keelele omane referentsiaalselt avatud isikut väljendav konstruktsioon. Üldistatud lineaarse segamudeli (GLMM) tulemused näitavad, et subjektivaheldust mõjutavad mitmed semantilis-grammatilised ning ka diskursiivsed tegurid. Tulemused näitavad, et üldisikulistel netsessiivkonstruktsioonidel on selgelt eristatavad sotsiaalset interaktsiooni liigendavad funktsioonid, näiteks (ühine) planeerimine või soovide väljendamine ja kõnesituatsiooni osalejarollide muutmine. Grammatilist subjekti sisaldavad netsessiivkonstruktsioonid aga rõhutavad pigem teo või tegevuse vajalikkust või kohustuslikkust kui selle otsest algatamist.

Uldis Balodis, Karl Pajusalu

The South Estonian language islands – Leivu, Lutsi, Kraasna – are three historically South Estonian-speaking exclaves located not only beyond the borders of Estonia, but also geographically separated from the main body of South Estonian speakers for at least several centuries. Two of these communities – Leivu and Lutsi – were located in present-day Latvia. The third community – Kraasna – was located near the northernmost Lutsi communities – only about 35 kilometres distant across the present-day Latvian border in Russia. This article acts as an introduction to the studies in this volume by describing the history and current state of the communities at its focus. It gives an overview of the location of the language island communities, their origins, linguistic status, and self-identity as well as provides a survey of their research history dating from its beginnings in the late 19th century to the present. Kokkuvõte. Uldis Balodis, Karl Pajusalu: Sissejuhatav ülevaade lõunaeesti keelesaartest. Lõunaeesti keelesaared – Leivu, Lutsi, Kraasna – on kolm ajaloolist lõunaeestikeelset enklaavi, mis ei jää üksnes väljapoole Eesti piire, vaid mis on olnud Lõuna-Eesti põhialast eraldatud vähemalt mitu sajandit. Kaks nendest keelesaartest – Leivu ja Lutsi – asuvad tänapäeva Lätis. Kolmas keelesaar – Kraasna – paiknes teisel pool Läti piiri Venemaal, jäädes põhjapoolsest Lutsi asualast ainult u 35 kilomeetri kaugusele. Artikkel tutvustab sissejuhatavalt selle erinumbri artiklite teemasid, kirjeldades lõunaeesti keelesaarte ajalugu ja praegust olukorda. Esitatakse ülevaade keelesaarte asendist ja päritolust, keelelisest staatusest, kõnelejate identiteedist ning ka uurimisloost 19. sajandist tänaseni.

N/A

Tiina Laansalu

Marja Kallasmaa bibliograafia 1975–2019.

Aki-Juhani Kyröläinen, Juhani Luotolahti, Filip Ginter

Intuitively, some predicates have a better fit with certain arguments than others. Usage-based models of language emphasize the importance of semantic similarity in shaping the structuring of constructions (form and meaning). In this study, we focus on modeling the semantics of transitive constructions in Finnish and present an autoencoder-based neural network model trained on semantic vectors based on Word2vec. This model builds on the distributional hypothesis according to which semantic information is primarily shaped by contextual information. Specifically, we focus on the realization of the object. The performance of the model is evaluated in two tasks: a pseudo-disambiguation and a cloze task. Additionally, we contrast the performance of the autoencoder with a previously implemented neural model. In general, the results show that our model achieves an excellent performance on these tasks in comparison to the other models. The results are discussed in terms of usage-based construction grammar. Kokkuvõte. Aki-Juhani Kyröläinen, M. Juhani Luotolahti ja Filip Ginter: Autokoodril põhinev närvivõrkude mudel valikulisel eelistamisel. Intuitiivselt tundub, et mõned argumendid sobivad teatud predikaatidega paremini kokku kui teised. Kasutuspõhised keelemudelid rõhutavad konstruktsioonide struktuuri (nii vormi kui tähenduse) kujunemisel tähendusliku sarnasuse olulisust. Selles uurimuses modelleerime soome keele transitiivsete konstruktsioonide semantikat ja esitame närvivõrkude mudeli ehk autokoodri. Mudel põhineb distributiivse semantika hüpoteesil, mille järgi kujuneb semantiline info peamiselt konteksti põhjal. Täpsemalt keskendume uurimuses objektile. Mudelit hindame nii valeühestamise kui ka lünkülesande abil. Kõrvutame autokoodri tulemusi varem välja töötatud neurovõrgumudelitega ja tõestame, et meie mudel töötab võrreldes teiste mudelitega väga hästi. Tulemused esitame kasutuspõhise konstruktsioonigrammatika kontekstis. Võtmesõnad: neurovõrk; autokooder; tähendusvektor; kasutuspõhine mudel; soome keel

Anu Treikelder, Anu Laanemets, Silvi Tenjes

Saatesõna – Preface

Lembit Vaba

There is still no consensus about the origin of the Finnic word family represented by, e.g. Fin lietsa, Est lõõts etc. The alleged Germanic etymology ~ ­Proto-Germ *blēstra-z (cf. Old Norse blástr m ’Blasen, Schwellung’ etc). presupposes the substitution of Germ *-st- > Finnic -ts-, which would be a unique case thus serving as an insurmountable obstacle to the acceptance of such an etymology. This short study suggests a Baltic etymology based on a supposed verb form, resp. verbal noun stem *plēti̯a-; cf. Lith plė̃sti (plẽčia, plė̃tė) < *plēt-tei-, plėtóti ’ausbrei­ten, ausspannen, entfalten, erweitern, verbreiten, fortpflanzen’ etc. As expected, the Baltic word-initial consonant cluster *pl- has been compensated by a single consonant l- and *ē > ē (> Fin ie, Est õõ); while the substitution of the Baltic sound sequence ti̯ has probably progressed as follows: Early Proto-Finnic *ćć >> Late Proto-Finnic *ts. As far as we know, the Baltic loanwords hitherto established in the Finnic languages include a single credible case based on a dental + i̯: Baltic *medi̯a- (cf. Lith medis ’Baum, Holz’) > Early Proto-Finnic *meććä >> Late Proto-Finnic *metsä (cf. Fin metsä, Est mets etc. ’Wald’), which makes the above Baltic etymology of the Finnic lietsa- ~ lõõtsa- word family nothing short of a discovery.

Helen Kõrgesaar, Airi Kapanen

The article focuses on specifying and describing the terms used in Estonian child language and child-directed speech. The terms used now do not offer enough necessary and precise tools for researchers of child language. Since children of different ages and proximities are talked to differently, a need has arisen to define the different types of child-directed speech, due to the multiple interpretations of terms and their concepts. Although most of the terms describing speech directed from an adult to a child have been considered synonyms in the English linguistics literature, this might not be the case in Estonian scientific language. The confusion of terms in English science is due to the massive amount of researchers and publishers which obviously makes it difficult to achieve uniformity. Taking into consideration this multitude of terms and confusion of concepts, the authors of this article offer recommended terms to be used in the future research of child and child-directed speech, in order to simplify the research and facilitate understanding of the terminology. The circle of researchers of child and child-directed speech in Estonia is quite narrow, which not only makes the implementation of clear, specified terms easy to agree on but would also greatly benefit the field of research itself. The authors are aware that in English scientific literature the terms used (e.g. motherese, fatherese, parentese) are not strictly distinctive, often due to the fact that it is not necessary, if the aim is to research child-directed speech in general. Since Estonian child language research is diversified, the necessary tools in the form of Estonian-language terms should be provided to be used according to the aim of the researcher.

Kadri Hein

The study focuses on the variables and functions that affect switching (code-switching and code-blending) between Estonian Sign Language and spoken Estonian among bimodal bilinguals in a school environment. It was found that deaf students at Tallinn Helen’s School predominantly code-blended (simultaneously spoke and signed), whereas their peers from Tartu Hiie School tended to code-switch (stopped speaking and started signing or vice versa). A deaf student’s level of switching was influenced most by the interlocutor’s level of switching, which highlights the importance of input provided by teachers. Although the most often used function of switching was to emphasise a constituent in a clause, the students also switched to express themselves in an original way (humour, language play) and to attract attention, while the teachers sometimes used switching for pedagogical reasons or to side-comment. In cases where it appeared problematic to apply a single function to a switch, a sequential turn-by-turn analysis (Auer 1995) was used.

Urmas Sutrop

In this paper the tree model – a well-formed tree is shortly described. After that the language family tree model by August Schleicher is treated and compared with the Charles Darwin’s tree of life diagram and metaphor. The development of the idea of the linguistic trees and the tree of life is considered historically. Earlier models – scala naturae – and tree models, both well-formed and not-well-formed are introduced. Special attention is paid to the scholars connected to Estonia who developed the idea of tree models: Georg Stiernhielm was the first who pictured a language tree already in 1671; Karl Eduard Eichwald published an early tree of animal life in 1829; and Karl Ernst von Baer influenced the tree of  life models and diagrams of Charles Darwin.

Matteo Albertini

The last twenty years has seen an increasing presence of Balkan organized crime groups in security reports and newspapers' headlines. This does not mean that mafia groups did not exist during Socialist Yugoslavia – even if its collapse and the following war made criminals and smugglers useful for politicians and leaders to maintain their power; it rather means that Balkan organized crime came outside its traditional areas of action in Serbia, Montenegro and Albania: less territorial and nationalist than it was before, it is now gaining prominence in an international scenario, making agreements with Italian and South American mafias – the so-called Holy Alliance – to manage drug routes towards Western Europe. One of the most interesting factors concerning Balkan mafia groups today is their presence in countries which traditionally do not have a history of organized crime, such as the Scandinavian states. One of the reasons lies in the wide percentage of immigrants moving from Balkan countries to Sweden or Norway. Since the wars of the 1990s in the former Yugoslavia, war-crimes fugitives were able to become common criminals in these countries, such as the infamous Želiko Raznjatović (“Arkan”). However, year by year, these gangs grew larger, taking advantage of the “expertise” and the resources gained during the war. In particular, the most spectacular case – the Våstberga helicopter robbery in 2009 – showed how these groups operate with military-style precision, utilize a wide number of participants, and have at their disposal laerge amounts of weapons and money. This paper will draw on the importance of Scandinavian – Balkan mafia relations in relation to three main criminal areas: drug and weapon smuggling and human trafficking, in order to underline the role of diasporas in enforcing organized crime groups and the extent to which these mafias could be a threat for the stability in both Eastern and Western Europe.

Ēriks Jēkabsons

Abstract:The paper approaches the working environment and observations of Latvian envoy Ludvigs Ēķis in Romania from the autumn of 1939 when the Latvian Legation was opened in Bucharest until the summer of 1940 when the State of Latvia was liquidated. The main focus is on the Latvian-Romanian relations in this period of time, the Romanian foreign and economical policy and the reaction of Romanian statesmen and society to the events and processes of the first stage of World War: the policy of Soviet Union, Germany and Hungary, the Soviet-Finnish War and other conflicts in region and in Europe. The article is based on the materials stored in the State Archives of Latvia and particularly on Ludvigs Ekis’ reports. In a time when war was raging in Europe, Romania, too, was subject to considerable international pressure. Some similarities can be detected between the developments in this region and in the Baltic States.Rezumat:Lucrarea abordează mediul de lucru şi observaţiile ministrului leton în România Ludvigs Ēķis începând din toamna anului 1939, cand Legaţia letonă a fost deschisă la Bucureşti, până în vara anului 1940, când statul leton a fost lichidat. Lucrarea se va concentra în principal asupra relaţiilor letono-române în această perioadă de timp, asupra politicii externe şi a celei economice, a reacţiei oamenilor de stat şi a societăţii româneşti faţă de evenimente şi procese desfăşurate în prima etapă a primului război mondial: politicile Uniunii Sovietice, Germaniei şi Ungariei, Războiul sovieto-finlandez şi alte conflicte regionale şi europene. Articolul se bazează pe materiale păstrate în arhivele de stat din Letonia şi în special pe rapoartele lui Ludvigs Ēķis. Într-un moment în care războiul făcea ravagii în Europa, România a fost, de asemenea, supusă unor presiuni internaţionale considerabile. Unele similitudini pot fi detectate între evoluţiile din această regiune şi cele din Statele Baltice.

Costel Coroban

Abstract:In 1709 the Great Northern War took an unfortunate course for Sweden, as following Charles XII’s defeat at Poltava, he was forced to retreat to Bender in the Ottoman Empire, where he would remain for 5 years.. The Swedish King’s retreat in the Ottoman Empire also reverberated in Britain, which at the time was involved in the War for Spanish Succession (1709-1714), and consequently sought for tranquillity at the North and Baltic Sea. While politicians were worried about the Swedish fleet, a worry which only aggravated after George I’s accession to the British thrones in 1714, writers such as Daniel Defoe and others could not refrain from expressing their admiration for the ‘Warrior King’ Charles XII. Soon after his return, Charles XII would even be associated with the Jacobite faction, rival to the House of Hanover which at the time ruled Britain. The purpose of this paper is to offer an overview of the whole spectrum of British publications and reactions regarding Charles XII’s sojourn in the Ottoman Empire, during his stay’s duration (1709-1714) and up to his death and the immediately subsequent period. Rezumat: În 1709, Marele Război Nordic a urmat un curs nefericit pentru Suedia deoarece ca urmare a înfrângerii lui Carol al XII-lea la Poltava, el a fost forţat să se retragă la Bender, în Imperiul Otoman, unde va rămâne timp de 5 ani. Retragerea regelui suedez în Imperiul Otoman a avut, de asemenea, reverberaţii în Marea Britanie, care la acea vreme era implicată în războiul de succesiune spaniol (1709-1714), şi, prin urmare, căuta liniştea la Marea Nordului şi la Marea Baltică. În timp ce politicienii erau îngrijoraţi de flota suedeză, o îngrijorare care doar s-a accentuat după urcarea lui George I pe tronul britanic în 1714, scriitori cum ar fi Daniel Defoe şi alţii nu au putut să se abţină de la exprimarea admiraţiei lor pentru „războinicul rege” Carol al XII-lea. Curând după întoarcerea sa, Carol al XII-lea a fi fost chiar asociat cu facţiunea iacobită, rivala Casei de Hanovra ce guverna la acea vreme Marea Britanie. Scopul acestei lucrări este de a oferi o imagine de ansamblu a întregului spectru de publicaţii şi reacţii britanice cu privire la sălăşluirea lui Carol al XII-lea în Imperiul Otoman, începând din perioada şederii sale (1709-1714) şi până la moartea sa şi în perioada imediat următoare.

Minna Suni, Lea Nieminen

In research into first and second language development, the focus has mainly been either on the formal features of learner language alone (both L1 and L2) or on the interaction between learners and their caretakers (L1) or native speaker peers (L2).These research traditions have been kept a part even though it has been widely acknowledged that both first and second languages are appropriated essentially in social interaction. This paper aims to strengthen the connection between social and formal approaches by combining interactional views with those focusing on the structural complexity of learner language. Some excerpts from L1 and L2 interaction data (in the Finnish language) are discussed. It is suggested that segmentation of linguistic material occurs in everyday situations and serves as a link between interaction and the growth of structural complexity in learner language. To situate this argument into a broader theoretical framework, various socially oriented research paradigms are briefly discussed.

Tiina Rüütmaa

The article compares the functions of the Hungarian and Estonian imperative and conditional in the subordinate clause in order to map the mutual relations of the two moods. After a survey of the treatment of the imperative (jussive) and conditional moods in modern Hungarian and Estonian grammars a number of subordinate clauses with either an imperative or conditional predicate, found from Hungarian texts, are compared with their Estonian equivalents.

Bogdan Schipor

In March 1938, when the eyes of the entire Europe were trained on the events in Austria that culminated with the Anschluss, there was another conflict on the European continent that bothered the Western powers, and not only. On March 17, 1938 the Polish minister at Tallinn handed to the Lithuanian minister in the capital of Estonia a notification through which Warsaw asked Lithuania to establish immediate diplomatic relations without prior conditions. The Polish government considered this the only way to solve the problems related to the border between the two states without jeopardizing the peace. Lithuania had 48 hours after the delivery of the notification to accept the proposal without any debate or negotiation. Its rejection would have given Warsaw the right to ensure its objectives and interests by any means it deemed necessary. Great Britain and France reacted cautiously to this new crisis, hoping for a peaceful solution, in order to avoid the involvement of the League of Nations or the escalation of the events towards an open conflict between the two states. In its turn, Romania, as an ally of Poland, refrained from a possible involvement or condemnation of Warsaw’s actions, a fact for which the Polish diplomats expressed their gratitude. But even if Lithuania conceded and the crisis died out, the Western countries, as well as Romania, had certain anxieties raised by the Polish-Lithuanian crisis which were to come true a year later. Poland’s actions in March 1938 had created a precedent that other powers did not hesitate to follow and the country that, in the end, would lose everything was Poland itself.

Silviu Miloiu

As a professor of Baltic and Nordic studies, I consider this book as marking a progress in our knowledge of British policy in the area and in the East European states’ policies of enlisting British help to their independence strivings and, therefore, I strongly recommend this book to both specialist and non-specialist Romanian and foreign readers.