Hasil untuk "Finnic. Baltic-Finnic"

Silja-Maija Spets

The Mari languages possess a set of temporally ambivalent TAME constructions containing the particles ə̑ľe and ulmaš in Meadow Mari as well as ə̑ľə̑ and ə̑lə̑n in Hill Mari. The variation between the particles is evidential by nature: ə̑ľe and ə̑ľə̑ mark direct source of information, while ulmaš and ə̑lə̑n encode an indirect one. However, the indirect readings of the latter ones are affected by the temporal interpretation of the clause: when expressing pastness, ulmaš and ə̑lə̑n may indicate either inferentiality, mirativity or reportativity, while with present tense reference they lack the reportative function. I explain this with the notions of perspective time and perceptual field, illustrating that the perspective structure of the particle constructions with ulmaš and ə̑lə̑n is suitable for the reportative reading only on the past stratum. The results elaborate the claim that the particles form an event-level (deictic), not a propositional-level (semantic) evidential system. Kokkuvõte. Silja-Maija Spets: Refereeritud evidentsiaalsus ja ajaperspektiiv: mari partiklite ulmaš ja ə̑lə̑n tähdenduse kohta. Mari keeltes on olemas ajaliselt ambivalentne TAME-konstruktsioon, mis niidumari keeles sisaldab partikleid ə̑ľe ja ulmaš ja mäemari keeles partikleid ə̑ľə̑ ja ə̑lə̑n. Kahe partikli erinevus seisneb nende evidentsiaalsuses: ə̑ľe ja ə̑ľə̑ markeerivad otsest evidentsiaalsust, ulmaš ja ə̑lə̑n aga informatsiooni pärinemist kaudsest infoallikast. Viimaste evidentsiaalseid tähendusi mõjutab siiski lause ajaline tõlgendus: kui lause viitab minevikule, saavad ulmaš ja ə̑lə̑n väljendada nii järeldatud ja refreeritud evidentsiaalsust kui ka miratiivsust, olevikule viidates aga ei ole refereeritud evidentsiaalsuse funktsioon võimalik. Käesolev artikkel seletab seda olukorda perspektiivaja ja tajuvälja mõistete abil ja illustreerib, kuidas partikkekonstruktsioonide perspektiivstruktuur sobib refereeritud informatsiooniallika markeerimiseks ainult mineviku aja puhul. Tulemused toetavad väidet, et partiklid väljendavad evidentsiaalsust sündmuse tasandil (deiktiliselt), mitte propositsiooni tasandil (semantiliselt).

Petra Hebedová

The aim of this paper is to contrast Estonian and Finnish deictic motion verbs (minema/mennä, tulema/tulla, viima/viedä, tooma/tuoda) with descriptions of the same motion situations in Czech, which does not have similar pairs of deictic motion verbs. The paper first describes Estonian and Finnish deictic motion verbs according to the literature and provides a short overview of motion verbs in Czech. The analysis is based on examples selected from two literary texts, one Estonian and one Finnish, and their translations. The comparison concentrates on different means of anchoring the direction of motion, that is, which part of the motion scene is selected as the landmark for translational motion. The paper shows that though Czech verb prefixes can in effect anchor the direction of motion to the speaker or to a location known to the speaker and addressee, the function of these prefixes is not directly comparable with the pairs of deictic motion verbs in Finnish and Estonian.

Merilin Aruvee, Katarin Leppik, Janika Vaht et al.

Tekstikeskne emakeeleõpetus kui eesti keele ja kirjanduse ainekavade keskne põhimõte pole veel piisavalt juurdunud ning vajab metoodilist tuge. Varasemate uuringute järgi sobib tekstikeskse käsitlusviisi aluseks süsteemfunktsionaalsest keeleteooriast lähtuv Sydney koolkonna žanripedagoogika, mille esimene katsetus Eestis näitas, et lähenemist tuleks emakeeleõpetuse kontekstis arendada. Siinse uuringu eesmärk on proovida žanriõpetuse toestatud meetodit “Lugedes õppima”, et parandada õpilaste tekstiteadlikkust ja kirjutamisoskust. Küsime: kuidas aitab meetod “Lugedes õppima” toetada õpilaste tekstiloomet? Viisime läbi kaks eraldiseisvat tegevusuuringut kahes Eesti koolis. Esimene grupp koosnes 6. klassi õpilastest (n = 33) ja õpiti õudusjuttu, teises grupis olid gümnaasiumi.pilased (n = 15) ning õpiti arutlevat kirjandit. Õpilastekste analüüsisime struktuurianalüüsi ja lingvistilise tekstianalüüsi meetodil. Mõlemal juhul joonistus välja žanrile omane ülesehitusmudel ja iseloomulikud keelevahendid: õpilaste kirjutatud õudusjuttudes anti mitmekülgsete lausetarinditega edasi pinget, võeti üle õudusjutule iseloomulikke poeetilisi võtteid, kirjandites kasutati arutlusele omaselt hinnangulisust ja neutraalses stiilis modaalsõnu. *** "Applying genre studies to narrative and argumentative text writing" Text-centred L1 teaching as a central principle of Estonian language syllabi is not yet sufficiently established and requires methodological support. Based on a system-functional language theory (Halliday 1985, Halliday, Matthiessen 2014) and realization model (Martin 2009), it offers a suitable framework for a text-centred approach (Aruvee 2023). Sydney school's genre pedagogy (Rose, Martin 2012) provides comprehensive strategies to implement that framework in the classroom. The first pilot study of genre pedagogy in Estonia indicated that the approach must be developed and scaffolded (Aruvee 2021). The aim of this study was to implement the “Reading to Learn” (R2L) programme in order to increase students’ text awareness and quality of text creation. We focused on two genres: essay as argumentative text and horror story as narrative text, which are at the heart of L1 teaching. The R2L programme is known for systematic and scaffolded activities which engage students and integrate reading and writing in a meaningful way (Coyle, Meyer 2021). We asked: how does the “Reading to Learn” programme support students’ text composition and lexicogrammatical choices? The study consists of two independent action research studies conducted by two teachers in two Estonian schools. The first group (n = 33) learned to write horror stories, the second group (n = 15) learned argumentative texts. The students’ texts were analysed using the method of structural analysis and linguistic text analysis, based on the specific characteristics of each genre. 6th-grade students copied the structure of the original text, although not in the same order. The analysis of the word and sentence stratum showed that most of the students used appropriate style, which is not taught explicitly. Their language use was notable, as they copied the style appropriate for horror stories: they used the vocabulary of the original text or found alternatives, and also formed complex sentences and non-finite structures and stylistic features. Essay writers mostly used a given structure for argumentation, which made rhetorical moves more cohesive. Sentence-level analysis of the essays revealed that students used neutral language, modal verbs and adverbs to stress the value of their claims. The results show that in both cases the quality of texts improved: structure and linguistic features became more visible. We thus conclude that “Reading to Learn” provided the necessary scaffolding for text-centred L1 teaching.

Jaana Kolu

"Multilingual practices in the minority language radio Meänraatio". The aim of the study is to explore how multilingualism and multilingual language practices are perceived by radio journalists working in Meänraatio, the Meänkieli-language channel of the Swedish Radio Norrbotten. (Meänkieli, earlier also known as Tornedalian Finnish, is an autochthonous language of Northern Sweden and now officially acknowledged as a national minority language.) Multilingualism and multilingual practices are examined in particular from the perspective of Meänkieli in the multilingual radio programme Finnmix, but also in the Meänraatio channel, Tornedalen and the Swedish society in general. In addition, the study explores the multilingual practices of hosts and listeners in the Finnmix broadcasts. The study is based on both ethnographic and interactional data. The former consists of a group interview with radio journalists working for Meänraatio, and of the author’s observations and logbook notes of Finnmix radio broadcasts, while the interactional data consist of recordings and transcriptions of Finnmix radio broadcasts. The theoretical framework of the study is sociolinguistic research on multilingualism, based in particular on translanguaging theory, which focuses on multilingual practices.

Lydia Risberg, Margit Langemets

Eesti keelekorralduse traditsioon normida õigekeelsussõnaraamatuga (ÕS) üldkeele sõnade tähendusi on pikalt kujundanud ühiskonna arusaama (eesti) keele toimimisest. Alates 1980. aastatest on keelekorralduses sõnade tähendusi normimise asemel „leebemalt“ suunatud, neid kirjakeelde sobimatuks peetud ja nende kohta soovitusi antud (mh ÕSides 1999–2018). Artiklis anname ülevaate eesti keele sõnatähenduste normimise ajaloost üldisemalt alates 19. sajandi teisest poolest, analüüsides olulisemaid keelekorraldusega seotud väljaandeid. Teeme üldistusi ja järeldusi sõnatähenduste normimise kohta, tuginedes oma varasemale sõnatähendustega seotud uurimistööle: kasutuspõhise keeleteooria ja korpuslingvistika süvenemisega eesti keeleteaduses on ka keelekorralduses jõutud arusaamale, et tähendused ei püsi sõnaraamatus kinni: (uue) tähenduse kasutusse jäämine sõltub keelesisestest ja -välistest teguritest, mitte ÕSist. Abstract. Lydia Risberg, Margit Langemets: Breaking the tradition of standardizing word meanings in Estonian language planning. The tradition of the Estonian language planning to standardize the meanings of general language through the formal Dictionary of Standard Estonian (DSE) has long influenced society’s understanding of how (Estonian) language works. Since the 1980s, instead of standardizing the meanings, the language planning has been more “lenient”, considering certain meanings inappropriate for the standard language and making recommendations on them (e.g. in the DSE 1999–2018). In this article, we will give an overview of the history of the standardization of word meanings in the Estonian language planning since the second half of the 19th century, analyzing the most important publications related to it. We draw generalizations and conclusions about the standardization of meanings based on our earlier research on word meanings: with the deepening of usage-based linguistics and corpus linguistics in Estonian linguistics, the understanding has been reached in language planning that meanings do not remain fixed in the dictionary: the (new) meaning’s survival in use depends on internal and external factors, not on the formal DSE.

Riku Erkkilä

Abstract. In this paper, I study the difference between the two goal-cases of the Mordvin languages, namely, the illative and the lative. A spatial case system with two productive goal-cases but only one case for each of the other spatial relations (i.e., location, source, and path) is a rare phenomenon in languages. To explain this situation, I study the semantics of the cases. I analyze the senses of the two cases, i.e., I study what meanings are expressed by them, and compare the semantic structures of the cases. Both of the cases are used to express mostly the same senses, but the frequencies of the senses differ between the cases. To explain this, I employ the concept of specificity. Specificity refers to the phenomenon where a relation between Trajector and Landmark is conceptualized as either more or less specific. The comparison of the semantics of the two cases reveals that the illative is used with more and the lative with less specific conceptualizations.In this paper, I study the difference between the two goal-cases of the Mordvin languages, namely, the illative and the lative. A spatial case system with two productive goal-cases but only one case for each of the other spatial relations (i.e., location, source, and path) is a rare phenomenon in languages. To explain this situation, I study the semantics of the cases. I analyze the senses of the two cases, i.e., I study what meanings are expressed by them, and compare the semantic structures of the cases. Both of the cases are used to express mostly the same senses, but the frequencies of the senses differ between the cases. To explain this, I employ the concept of specificity. Specificity refers to the phenomenon where a relation between Trajector and Landmark is conceptualized as either more or less specific. The comparison of the semantics of the two cases reveals that the illative is used with more and the lative with less specific conceptualizations. Kokkuvõte. Riku Erkkilä: Illatiivi ja latiivi tähendused mordva keeltes. Käesolevas töös uurin erinevusi mordva keelte kahe sihikääne ehk illatiivi ja latiivi vahel. Kohakäänete süsteem, kus on kaks produktiivset sihikäänet, kuid ainult üks kääne teiste kohasuhete väljendamiseks, on maailma keeltes tavaliselt haruldane nähtus. Selle olukorra selgitamiseks uurin käänete semantikat. Analüüsin, milliseid tähendusi käänded väljendavad, ja võrdlen käänete semantilisi struktuure. Mõlemaid käändeid kasutatakse enamasti samade mõtete väljendamiseks, aga mõtete sagedused on käänete vahel erinevad. Selle selgitamiseks kasutan spetsiifilisuse mõistet. Spetsiifilisus viitab nähtusele, kus trajektori ja orientiiri vaheline seos kontseptualiseeritakse kas enam või vähem spetsiifilisena. Käänete semantika võrdlusest selgub, et illatiivi kasutatakse spetsiifilisemate ja latiivi vähem spetsiifiliste kontseptualisatsioonidega.

Hanna Pook

Abstract. The Estonian language makes a systematic distinction between total and partial objects on the basis of semantic and syntactic features: total objects occur in nominative or genitive, partial objects in partitive. However, in the case of the interrogative-relative pronoun mis ‘what’, the partitive mida in the expected partial object position can be replaced with the nominative mis. The aim of this paper is to determine which variables significantly affect this object case variation, how the variation differs between contemporary speech and archaic dialects and what might have possibly motivated the development of this variation. This study is based on the data in the Phonetic Corpus of Estonian Spontaneous Speech and the Corpus of Estonian Dialects. The results show that the variation is most affected by verb type, clause type, length of the following word and dialect. It is concluded that there might be multiple motivations behind this variation, mainly language contact (or a lack of it in certain areas), high usage frequency of the pronoun mis and the effect of the standardisation of language. Kokkuvõte. Hanna Pook: Pronoomeni mis käände varieerumine objekti positsioonis spontaanses eesti keeles ja eesti murretes. Eesti keeles eristatakse täis- ja osasihitist mitmete semantiliste ja süntaktilise tunnuste põhjal; täissihitis on nominatiivis või genitiivis, osasihitis partitiivis. Relatiiv-interrogatiivpronoomeni mis puhul võib aga oodatud osasihitise positsioonis asendada partitiivi mida nominatiiviga mis. Selle artikli eesmärk on välja selgitada, millised tunnused mõjutavad oluliselt pronoomeni mis objekti käände varieerumist, kuidas see varieerumine erineb vanemates kohamurretes ja tänapäevases spontaanses kõnes ning mis on selle varieerumise võimalikud põhjused ja mõjurid. Analüüs põhineb eesti keele spontaanse kõne foneetilisel korpusel ja eesti murrete korpusel. Tulemused näitavad, et mis ja mida varieerumist osaobjekti positsioonis mõjutavad kõige enam verbitüüp, lausetüüp, järgneva sõna silpide arv ja murre. On tõenäoline, et pronoomeni mis käände varieerumine on korraga olnud mõjutatud mitmest tegurist, peamiselt keelekontaktidest (või kontaktivähesusest teatud piirkondades), pronoomeni mis suurest kasutussagedusest ja keele standardiseerimisest.

Aleksei Kelli, Kadri Vider, Arvi Tavast et al.

Artikli eesmärgiks on selgitada, millises ulatuses mõjutab keeleandmetele kohalduv õiguslik režiim keelemudelite arendamist ja kasutamist. Autorid lähtuvad oma käsitluses protsessiskeemist, alustades algandmetest ning lõpetades keeletehnoloogiat sisaldavate valmistoodetega (nt kõneliidesega külmik). Keeletehnoloogias kasutatavad algandmed sisaldavad tihti autoriõiguslikult kaitstavaid teoseid, autoriõigusega kaasnevate õiguste objekte (esitus, salvestus) ja isikuandmeid (isiku hääl, isiku kohta käiv muu info), mida säilitatakse annoteerimata ja annoteeritud andmekogudes. Keelandmete õiguslikke küsimusi on juba varem uuritud. Õiguslikult on läbi uurimata aga keelemudelite õiguslikud aspektid. Autorid on seisukohal, et reeglina ei mõjuta keelemudelite edasist õiguslikku staatust kasutatud algandmete õiguslik režiim, sest autoriõigusega kaitstavad teosed mudelis pigem ei säili. Küll aga võib õiguslikke probleeme tekitada isiku hääle kasutamine keelemudelis. Autorid analüüsivad võimalikke lahendusvariante nende probleemide ületamiseks. Artiklis vaadeldakse ka uue autoriõiguse direktiiviga kehtestatavat andmekaeve regulatsiooni ja selle rakendamist keelemudelite loomise kontekstis. *** "Influence of legal regime of language data on language models" This article aims to explain the extent to which the legal regime applicable to language data affects the development and use of language models. In their approach, the authors follow a process chart, starting from raw data to finished products containing language technology (eg a refrigerator with a speech interface). The raw data used in language technologies often include copyrighted works, objects of related rights (performances, sound recordings) and personal data (voice, other information about the person) stored in non-annotated and annotated databases. The legal issues of language data have already been studied. However, the legal aspects of language models have not been throughly explored. The authors are of the opinion that, as a rule, the legal status of the language models is not affect by the legal status of the used raw language data, since copyrighted works usually do not remain in the model. However, the use of a person’s voice in a language model can create legal problems. The authors analyze possible solutions to overcome these problems. The article also outlines the regulation of data mining introduced by the new copyright directive and its implementation in the context of development of language models.

Marina Lyublinskaya

The archive of the Salekhard District Museum and Exhibition Complex named after I. S. Šemanovskij hosts a Tundra Nenets word list which was compiled for a practical dictionary by the topographer and land surveyor Vladimir Petrovič Evladov. Evladov collected this material between 1926 and 1935 during three expeditions to the Yamal Peninsula. He also consulted with students of the Institute of Northern Peoples in Leningrad. The material consists of two word lists, a Nenets-Russian and a Russian- Nenets one. The material reflects Tundra Nenets pronunciation and the meaning of lexemes around these years. It is important for studies on the period of language construction in Soviet Russia. We publish here the Nenets-Russian vocabulary in the Unified Northern Alphabet. Kokkuvõte. Marina Ljublinskaja: Neenetsi sõnastik Vladimir Evladovi arhiivist Salehardis. Salehardi I. S. Šemanovskij nimelises ringkonnamuuseumis ja näitusekompleksis asub tundraneenetsi sõnaloend, mille koostas praktilise sõnastikuna topograaf ja maamõõtja Vladimir Petrovič Evladov, kes kogus selle jaoks materjali oma ekspeditsioonil 1926. ja 1935. aasta vahel. Ka konsulteeris ta Leningradis Põhjarahvaste Instituudi üliõpilastega. Andmestik koosneb kahest sõnaloendist: üks neenetsi-vene suunal ja teine vene-neenetsi suunal. Materjal kajastab tolleaegset tundraneenetsi hääldust ja lekseemide tähendusi ja on oluline uurimaks keelekonstrueerimise perioodi Nõukogude Venemaal. Uurimus sisaldab neenetsi-vene sõnastikku ühtses põhjarahvaste tähestikus. Аннотация. Марина Люблинская: Ненецкий словарь из архива В. П. Евладова в Салехарде. В архиве музейно-выставочного комплекса в городе Салехарде (ЯНАО) хранятся списки слов на ненецком языке, собранные топографом и землеустроителем В. П. Евладовым. Слова были записаны в 1926–35 годах во время исследовательских экспедиций по Ямалу для составления практического словаря. Между поездками Евладов обсуждал материал с ненецкими студентами института Народов Севера в Ленинграде. Готовилось два словаря – ненецко-русский и русско-ненецкий, которые так и не были изданы. Записи Евладова передают произношение и значене ненецких слов в начале XX века. Также материал значим для изучения периода языкового строительства в Советской России. Ниже публикуется ненецко-русская часть словаря, записанная Единым Северным алфавитом.

Pirkko Muikku-Werner, Jarmo Harri Jantunen

Finns reading Estonian texts have a variety of strategies to make sense of them. One is priming, which means that language users consciously or unconsciously rely on previous knowledge of associations that occur in phraseological units. We studied how the distance between a prime and its target and theme affects the understanding of unknown words and false friends, and how the restricted semantic category affects uncovering the target. The data of the study consist of translations of Estonian texts into Finnish, produced by native Finnish speakers with no theoretical or practical knowledge of Estonian. The participants were also asked about the process of reaching certain translation equivalents. The Finnish Language Text Collection was consulted for L1 patterning, in order to reveal whether the phraseological combinations in translation tests have counterparts in target language usage. The analysis revealed that there are several factors that affect understanding source text lexemes: external similarity, the distance of the items in a phraseological unit, the limitedness of the semantic category and, finally, world knowledge. The participants often mentioned orthographic similarity as a starting point in revealing the meaning. Other factors that contributed to understanding a foreign text were mentioned as well: context and semantic relations, which base on internalised metalinguistic knowledge, facilitated to associate the prime and the target. Finally, similar collocations to translation tests were found in the L1 data.

Fred Puss

Rööpsete perekonnanimede teke on unikaalne Eestis ja Lätis, kus mõisas pandi 1820.–1830. aastail samale talupojale üks, kirikus aga teine perekonnanimi. Nimede panemise õigus oli mõisadel, kuid kohati võtsid pastorid osa nimede panekust ning muutsid kirikuraamatutes nimesid ka hiljem. Eestis oli üksikuid piirkondi (mõisu), kus rööpnimede hulk oli suurem, nt Ahja mõisas 53%, Roosna-Alliku mõisa Järva- Madise kihelkonna osas 32%, olles enamasti aga mõne protsendi piires. Võnnu kihelkonnas muutsid vastastikku üksteise nimeloomet mõisavalitsused, kolm järjestikust pastorit ning eriti köster. Pärast üldise perekonnanimepanekuga loodud rööpnimesid oli XIX sajandi teisel poolel ja XX sajandi algul nende tavalisim tekkepõhjus saksastamine, harvem sugulussuhete muutumine (kärgpered, lapsendamised). Kui mõnel pool jõudsid kirikuraamatute nimekujud ka hingeloendisse, siis tavaline see polnud. Sel põhjusel oli ka XX sajandi algul inimestel vallavalitsuse välja antud tsaariaegses passis või iseseisvusaegsel isikutunnistusel üks, kirikuraamatutes teine nimi. Rööpnimed kaotati enamasti riiklike perekonnaregistrite sisseseadmisega alates 1926. aastast ning ametlikustati reeglina sünnikandes leiduv nimekuju. Osal juhtudel tekkisid topeltnimed. Rööpnimed on dokumentides tekitanud segadust ka hiljem. Abstract. Fred Puss: Muuga or Kersna? The appearance and perishment of Estonian parallel family names. The reason for the appearance of parallel family names in Estonia and Latvia is unique: in the 1820s–1830s, the manor officials gave family names to local peasants and the Lutheran pastors changed those names or gave different ones. In some areas, mismatch was up to 53%, but generally did not exceed a few percent. Sometimes in the church records, the names were later changed to match the manor (or later tax) records, but much less often vice versa. However, when the names in the church records were changed (mostly Germanized) in the second half of the 19th century, but not in the tax records, new mismatches appeared. As of 1926, the state began to keep vital statistics records and the name in a birth entry in the church book was usually fixed as the only family name thereafter. This marked the end of the occurrence of most of the parallel family names in Estonia, but some became double family names and some still caused confusion in later records.

Silviu Miloiu

The Romanian Journal for Baltic and Nordic Studies marks its tenth anniversary with a special issue devoted mainly to 100 Years since Modern Independence and Unification in Baltic Sea Region and East-Central Europe, which was the theme of the Ninth Annual International Conference on Baltic and Nordic Studies in Romania held at Valahia University of Târgoviște on November 15-16, 2018. The event focused on the historical, cultural, social and economic processes which led to the independence of Finland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Poland in the Baltic Sea Region, to the unification of Romania and the independence of Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) in East-Central Europe and the consequences of the reshaping of the entire region from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and Adriatic Sea. Several other political entities created at the end of World War I such as Ukraine, Georgia or Litbel succumbed after barely living for a few months or years of existence. How did the changes of borders and belonging affect the human communities living in the area and what impact did they have beyond the region on the short, medium and long-run? How were war and peace-making experienced in this region and how did they influence the changes of political geography? How did the processes of independence and unification reverberate throughout the region and how did state and non-state actors reflect, echo and react to this structural transformation of the area? How does this metamorphosis resonate in historical memory, the politics of memory and cultural identity, in historical narratives, including competing narratives, and in the use of history in identity politics a century after the guns were silenced? How does literature permeate the changes occurring at the end of the war to end all wars in the region? How do art, architecture, patrimony, in general, capture the message of those tremendous transformations? Places of commemoration, autobiographies, biographies and memoirs, empiric or theoretical research relevant to the conference topic stood also at the core of the conference.

Ene Vainik

The paper discusses the origins of the Estonian word jumal (‘God’). First, it summarises the versions proposed by previous treatises, and thereafter the linguistic material of Estonian runo songs is analysed in order to detect variations in its usage, pointing to the possible pre-Christian meaning of the word. The body of the paper consists of presenting and discussing the alternative stems that the word jumal could be derived from. Among them are some appellatives (jumm/juma ‘log’; jumi/jume ‘colour of the face’) as well as proper names of the mythological creatures of the neighbouring countries (Finnish Jumi and Latvian Jumis) and the name of the Indo-European divine twin (Yemo).The linguistic and geographical distribution of the term as well as the background information obtained from archaeology suggest that the latter version fits the best. In the following a somewhat more extended summary of the abovementioned sections of the paper is presented. The previous treatises agree that the term jumal is of genuine origin. It is considered to be a derivative term consisting of the stem jumV (the last vocal varying between (a/e/i) and of a suffix (-l-). They disagree on its proposed original meaning (‘cover’, ‘face’, ‘sound of thunder’, ‘good’, ‘essence’, ‘shivering’, ‘dead body’) and on what the function of the suffix has been. There are also different opinions on whether the supposed supreme being has been of “heavenly” kind or it could have been located elsewhere. The analysis of the context in which the term jumal was used in the runo songs revealed that besides the usages in the Christianity-related contexts (co-located with Jeesuke (‘Jesus’) and Mari (‘Mary’)) there were other uses where it omitted such a company. Among them were the stereotypical phrases and addresses for help and the pantheistic nature-related usages (in connection with wind, trees and light). There were also some references to the genuine Baltic-Finnic mythological heritage (the God-Smith, the ‘golden trace of god’, etc.) and some usages that could be cultural influences from the neighbours. Tracing back the dialectal stem jumm/juma (‘log’) reveals its cognate in ancient Russian ‘connected rafts; catamaran’. The wood-related origin of the word jumal is considered semantically motivated (the wooden statues of gods being the link between the ideological content and the material), but the stem as the actual origin of jumal is questionable because of its presence not only in the Baltic-Finnic languages but also in Mordvinic and Mari. The stem jumi/jume (‘colour of the face’) appeared to be used in different meanings mainly in the archaic runo songs, indicating ‘vital force’ and ‘mental force’. These meanings fit perfectly with the Estonians’ animistic worldview in general and their obsession with the vital force noticed by the earlier authors. Also, the usage of the term reveals that metonymy (paleness stands for physical/mental weakness) and metaphors (e.g. vital/mental force is liquid, vital/mental force is a person) have been at work. Derivation of the notion of jumal from such a concept seems highly probable. However, the abstract meanings are only locally distributed in a part of southern Estonia while the word jumal(a) is known in the Baltic-Finnic languages and its cognates also in Mari and Mordvinic. In the Finnish heritage there was a mythological creature called Jumi. He appeared as double-faceted: causing of sudden diseases was attributed to him, and at the same time he was the fertility deity, worshipped in a special type of play-weddings. Jumi has been referred to as the Finno-Ugric pantheistic “spirit of the world” having a cognate at least in Mari (Jumo). Derivation of the appellative jumal from such a proper name seems highly probable. In Latvian there is a word jumi-s (f. juma-, n jume-) (‘double fruit’), and its supposed derivative jumala (‘fat female’). Historically, there has been a fertility deity called Jumis in the Baltic pantheon. Derivation of the appellative jumal (‘god’) from the borrowed proper name of the fertility deity also seems probable. In addition, there is a possibility that the whole word jumala has been borrowed. Again, the linguistic and geographic distribution of the term makes this particular version of borrowing somewhat questionable. The Latvian Jumis is etymologically connected to the Indo-European divine twin Yemo, which has cognates in the creation myths of several Indo-European cultures and his role has been to symbolise the connection of living people to the dead ancestors. The original meaning of the stem is believed to be ‘to bind together’. Purely linguistic evidence leaves it uncertain whether this could be the actual origin of the term jumal, but the word has been borrowed to the Finno-Ugric languages at least once (the Sami juomek ‘twin’). The linguistic distribution (cognates in Mari and Mordvinic) suggests that the stem Jum must have been coined or borrowed during the prehistoric period 1900–900 BC. At that time bronze spread from the East to the West, and together with it the fortified settlements similar to the Indo-Iranian ones. The herding and cultivating economy produced more food than hunting and gathering, thus giving an advantage to the tribes who had changed their economy. The archaeological evidence (types of graves) in Estonia reveals a collectivist mentality and a cult of ancestors. Therefore, within the whole economic, cultural and ideological package, borrowing of the name of the deity of dead ancestors YemoàJum seems highly probable. There are several other religion-related Indo-Iranian loanwords in Estonian (taevas ‘heaven’ <*‘god’, peied ‘wake’, mana- ‘spell; underworld’, marrask (of skin) ‘dead’). The original ancestor-related meaning of the name/stem jum, however, has been reinterpreted according to the evolving needs of the Finno-Ugric speaking societies: it could refer to the pantheistic “spirit of the world”, the fertility deity, the life force, the ultimate helper, the creator, the heavenly supreme being, etc.

Ildikó P. Varga

The Franz Joseph University in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca, Romania) was the second modern university in the Kingdom of Hungary and it was founded in 1872. This paper presents a micro-historical investigation of a case from 1901, when the University considered inviting a Finnish linguist to the Department of Hungarian and Comparative Linguistics after the death of the Hungarian Jewish Professor Ignác Halász. The study sheds light on the arguments made to justify the need for a foreign professor and why this plan was not realized and on the role played by Emil Nestor Setälä, the professor of Finnish language and literature at the University of Helsinki, in the appointment process. The study is based on the personal correspondence of one of the candidates, Béla Vikár and the official documents of the University.

Tiina Rüütmaa

Uurimuse eesmärk on kaardistada eesti ja ungari kõneviisisüsteemi vastavusi lähtudes kõneviiside funktsioonidest vaadeldavates keeltes. Kõrvallause kõneviiside uurimine annab võimaluse vaadelda ka neid kõneviisivaliku mõjureid, mis ilmnevad ainult kõrvallauses. Näiteks võib kõneviisivalikut mõjutada pealause semantika, samuti teatud sidendid. Relatiivlause predikaadi kõneviis seevastu võib mõjutada pealauset. Kuna lisaks finiitsetele verbivormidele on eesti kõrvallauses levinud ka da-infinitiivis predikaat, on terviklikkuse huvides uurimusse haaratud ka see kõrvallausetüüp. Uurimismaterjalina on kasutatud eestikeelsete ilukirjandustekstide kõrvallauseid ja nende vasteid ungarikeelsetes tõlgetes.Eesti kõrvallause indikatiivile vastab ülekaalukalt indikatiiv ka ungari keeles, relatiivkõrvallause indikatiivis predikaadile võib ungari keeles siiski vastata ka täiend. Kõige laiem vastete skaala on eesti kõrvallause konditsionaalil: konditsionaal (peamiselt tingimuslikkust väljendavates lausetes), imperatiiv (enamasti lausetes, kus eesti konditsionaal täidab konjunktiivi funktsioone) ja harva ka indikatiiv. da-infinitiivse predikaadiga eesti kõrvallausele vastab ungari keeles enamasti imperatiivis (peamiselt finaallauses), harvem indikatiivis (peamiselt tingimuslauses) või konditsionaalis (peamiselt kõrvutuslauses) predikaadiga kõrvallause. Kvotatiivis ja imperatiivis predikaadiga kõrvallauseid on vaadeldud materjali hulgas järelduste tegemiseks liiga vähe. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/LV22.12

Péter Durst, Boglárka Janurik

This paper aims to examine whether the fact that both the Hungarian and the Erzya-Mordvin languages distinguish between definite and indefinite verb conjugation facilitates acquisition. Data was collected a) from a group of 83 language learners of various L1s and b) from 11 learners whose L1 is the Erzya-Mordvin language, using a questionnaire containing 210 test questions. Contrastive analysis of the Hungarian and the Mordvin definite object complexes reveals several differences between the two systems which make it difficult for learners to rely on analogies when deciding on the type of conjugation. Our results suggest that the time spent in the target language environment helps learners acquire the use of the definite conjugation, especially in the most difficult cases where an implicit object is implied by the context.

Siebren Dyk

In Modern West Frisian, by New Frisian Breaking, two rising diphthongs have developed with initial /w/. However, in theeastern part of the language area these sequences are nowadays pronounced as [jo] and [ja], respectively. The change started when immigrant peat diggers became integrated into Frisian society, and as a result of imperfect learning did not master fully those difficult Frisian diphthongs. As an escape strategy, they fronted the initial glide to /j/. A second centre of hange was at the language border,where peat-digging also resulted in the mixing of populations. In the course of the 20th century, the new forms were rapidly spreading. An analysis of the change as a case of shift (cf. Thomason and Kaufman 1988) can nicely explain the platalization of the glide, and moreover, it gives insight into the question why this only occurred after labials. In the case of a minority-majority contact situation, however, change by shift in the minority language is not to be expected in the first place, as it requires that a population is switching to a target language that is less powerful or prestigeous.However, the peat diggers all spoke a Dutch Low Saxon dialect,which had a low prestige, indeed.

Leena Niiranen

The aim of the study is to present how three learners of Finnish in Northern Norway use complex constructions of verbs. Tiina and Anna are Norwegian-Finnish bilinguals; Berit has learned Finnish only at school. I discuss their knowledge of complex constructions of verbs as it relates to their use of the Finnish language outside the classroom. I also discuss this knowledge within their formal learning context. Complex constructions are verbs that take infi nitives or clauses as complements. Verbs are classifi ed as concrete, mental and abstract (for example modal verbs). Mental and abstract verbs are used as main verbs in constructions with infi nitives as complements. Mental verbs (speech act, cognition or perception verbs) take complement clauses.

Ago Künnap

Geneetikud on tõestanud uurali keelte kõnelejate saabumise Euroopasse idast. Artiklis on esitatud soomlaste ja eestlaste saabumise teed. Vastavalt rahvusvahelise geneetikute rühma uurimistulemustele (Bramanti jt 2009) kuulus 80 protsendi küttide-korilaste emaliinide DNA-st tüüpi, mis on tänapäeva eurooplaste seas üsna haruldane, esinedes tavaliselt 10 protsendil, põhjaeurooplastel 20 protsendil. Mõned uralistid on hakanud pidama eesti ja teiste uurali keelte oletatavat algkeelt suhteliselt nooreks. Nad oletavad, et selle algkeele lagunemine algas alles umbes 4000 aasta eest

Piret Voolaid

<p>Artiklis käsitletakse lühendinaljade olemust, võimalikke moodustusviise, seoseid huumori ja slängiga ning nende tõlgendussisu sõltumist sotsiokultuurilisest kontekstist. Allikmaterjaliks on Eesti Kirjandusmuuseumi rahvaluulearhiivis leiduvad lühendmõistatused (u 3000 teksti, u 330 tüüpi), mis on koondatud 2004. aastal valminud andmebaasi “Eesti lühendmõistatused” (Voolaid 2004a). Lühendmõistatuste andmebaas annab hea läbilõike lühendite folkloorsetest tõlgendustest eri aegadel ning võimaldab jälgida ja kirjeldada žanri muutusi diakrooniliselt sotsiaal-kultuurilisel taustal.</p> <p>Folkloori ja keele piirimaile jäävate lühendiparoodiate liigitusvõimaluste ja moodustusmallide tutvustamisel on tuginetud vene folkloristi Aleksandra Arhipova taksonoomiale. Folkloristlikust vaatenurgast käsitletakse nähtust mõistatuste alaliigina: küsimuspooleks on üldtuntud lühend ehk abreviatuur, millele antakse vastuses üldkasutatavast hoopis erinev, vaimukas ja naljakas, tihti poliitiliselt ja/või seksuaalselt markeeritud seletus. Ühel ja samal lühendil esineb mitu tõlgendusvõimalust – üldtuntud ja folkloorne. Keeleteaduses saab lühendite (vaimukat) tõlgendamist pidada üheks oluliseks rühmakeelte (nt suletud subkultuuride või erialainimeste) slängisõnavara või salakeele allikaks.</p>DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/ERYa5.23