The article actualizes the thesis about the additional heuristic significance of a well-compiled bilingual dictionary of past eras, which emerges over a historical distance, as a source of important information about the current state of languages at the time of its publication and about the specifics of carrying out lexicographic work at a given historical stage (the latter allows us to trace the process of evolution and improvement of this area of applied linguistics). This additive value potential is not connected with the individual creative idea of the compiler, arises independently of his intentional will, represents an objectively determined cognitive result of historical evolution and to some extent compensates for the effect of the loss of the pragmatic informational significance of the dictionary for users of later eras due to the inevitable archaization of its content. Based on the data of an incomplete problem-oriented sample from the dictionary, a brief description of the lexical-phraseological landscape of the Russian language of the late XIX century of the specified period is given, while the focus is on lexical-semantic phenomena marked in relation to the evolutionary essence of natural language, demonstrating the linguistically relevant uniqueness of the Russian vocabulary system of the specified period, revealed in projection onto the modern nomenclature and semantic-pragmatic ontology of the language. In this regard, such phenomena as the phono morphological polyvariance of a significant number of words, the extraordinary activity of word-formation processes in some aspects less characteristic of modern language, the high level of gender differentiation in naming persons, and a special strategy of nomination processes – with an emphasis on maximum detailing of subject-everyday realities, appearance and personality of a person – are of unconditional scientific interest. When examining the technique of lexicographic representation used in the dictionary in the aspect of diachrony, some features of working with the word were revealed, specific to that time and perceived as linguistic archaism from the standpoint of modernity. In this regard, first of all, the absence of a systematic interest of the dictionary compiler in connotative semantics should be mentioned.
Ghanun-e Adab, written by Abulfazl Hubaish-e ben Ibrahim-e Teflisi‚ is the most detailed Arabic-to-Persian dictionary of the 6th century AH. Teflisi's works hold significant importance from various perspectives, especially to better understand the characteristics of the dialects spoken in western Iran. Among these works, Ghanun-e Adab is a valuable treasure of old Persian terms and combinations containing 60,000 Arabic entries. In 1350 SH, the Iran Culture Foundation published this dictionary In 3 volumes with the effort and correction of the late Golamreza Taher. Unfortunately, after death of the Professor Golamreza Taher‚ it was not possible to compile and print the alphabetical list of Arabic entries, the index of Persian words, and probably to revise and re-edit Ghanun-e Adab. In addition to the lack of necessary lists in the printed text, which has made it difficult to refer to it‚ incorrect readings, incomplete recording of some words (especially rare words), changing words and their pronunciation, changing the handwriting of the manuscripts, not recording the diacritical marks of some diacritic words, not recording several words and meanings of the dictionary manuscript can also be seen in this edition. The present research is the result of comparing the printed text of the Ghanun-e Adab with the corrector’s basis manuscript and nine other manuscripts and matching the differences with the available dictionaries. Some instances have been presented with explanations, evidences from other Teflisi works and classical verse and prose texts and the author's suggestions.
AbstractThe critical approach to Orientalist studies on the Prophetic biography (Sira) in Iran during Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi's reign evolved both historically and in terms of content. This study explored the historical processes and methodologies that shaped this critique. Utilizing an analytical-comparative method, it revealed that the critique began in 1941 with Mohammad Ali Khalili's "The Influence of the Personality of Muhammad, the Leader of Mankind", and gradually gained prominence among writers of Iranian Sira. The critiques developed both methodologically and content-wise, adopting two primary approaches: theological and historical-theological. Works like "Muhammad, the Recognized Prophet", by Mohammad Ali Ansari and "In the School of Revelation" by Ja'far Sobhani employed a theological lens to critique Orientalist works. Sobhani further addressed Orientalist views in "The Eternal Light", while recounting historical events. Seyyed Ja'far Shahidi adopted a historical-theological approach, blending historical methods with theological beliefs in his two-part work, "From Birth to Prophethood" and "From Prophethood to Migration". This research highlighted how critiques of Orientalist studies became systematic and scholarly during this period, reflecting a growing intellectual rigor in addressing Orientalist perspectives on the life of the Prophet. The findings underscored the evolution of Iranian Sira scholarship, which balanced theological integrity with historical analysis to challenge and refine Orientalist narratives. Keywords: Biography of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H.), Orientalist Studies, Critical Approach, Theological Approach, Historical-Theological Approach, Iran during the Pahlavi II Era. IntroductionThe study of the Prophetic biography (Sira) by Orientalists has a long and complex history. In recent centuries, these studies have diversified significantly due to varying methodological approaches in historical research. This diversity has produced a range of perspectives among Orientalists regarding the Sira. On one hand, some Orientalist works have garnered positive reflections in Islamic societies. The methodological rigor, critical examination of traditional sources, extensive use of diverse materials, and attention to various aspects of the Prophet's life have captivated certain scholars and audiences (Al-Viri, 2002, p. 122). Conversely, others have expressed strong critiques of Orientalist theories (Abdolmohammadi, 2013, p. 22).Critics often approach Orientalist research with skepticism, noting that the empirical methods employed frequently lead to a denial of metaphysical truths or an outright disregard for them. This tendency arises from the inherent acceptance of the meaninglessness of such matters within the framework of Western empirical methods (Parsania, 1997, p. 181). The materialism and secularism of some Orientalists further contribute to their denial of the unseen and its implications. Additionally, the Jewish or Christian backgrounds of certain Orientalists have resulted in a dismissal of the prophethood of Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) (Ainehvand, 2009, p. 88). Some critics even characterize Orientalists as agents of colonialism, arguing that they disguise their efforts as scientific research while seeking to present a flawed image of the Prophet (Said, 1992, p. 16).As a result, some scholars contend that while some Orientalists adopt a hostile stance toward Islam and others may take a more moderate or sympathetic approach, their differences often reflect only varying degrees of hostility rather than a fundamental divergence in perspective on Islam and the Prophet (Al-Viri, 2002, p. 122). These issues combined with excessive skepticism, establishment of unfounded assumptions, qualitative dismissals of spiritual factors, reliance on weak and anomalous narrations, and attribution of the achievements of the Prophetic biography to Jewish or Christian origins (Ainehvand, 2009, p. 88) underscore the necessity of critiquing Orientalist studies. Consequently, the critical approach to Orientalist scholarship has evolved into a rigorous academic practice within Islamic circles.Indeed, although criticizing the works of Orientalists was once deemed challenging due to the West's technological superiority, leading Muslims to be less inclined to question their views in Islamic and human sciences, a gradual shift occurred. Critiques of these works began to emerge, resulting in numerous publications in this area (Abdolmohammadi, 2013, p. 22). It is important to note that some Orientalist interpretations were based on weak and unreliable reports previously cited in historical and biographical accounts of the Prophet (P.B.U.H.). Despite their awareness of these weaknesses, some Orientalists chose to emphasize them.The critical evaluation of Orientalist views, particularly regarding the Prophetic biography (Sira), became a normative practice among Iranian writers. During the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah, this critical approach gained significant traction among Iranian authors. It is noteworthy that while some embraced the views and methodologies of Orientalists in their studies of the Prophetic biography, others sought to critique these perspectives. Earlier, during Reza Shah's reign (1925-1941), critiques of Orientalist works were less prevalent. For instance, Zeyn al-Abedin Rahnama's book, "The Prophet (P.B.U.H.)", published in 1937 gained widespread circulation in Iranian society (Bausani, 1984, p. 119; Rafiei, 1992, p. 1/317). In his introduction, Rahnama acknowledged Orientalist works as sources and frequently referenced them throughout his text, accepting their analyses (Rahnama, 1957, p. 188-189).However, from the onset of Mohammad Reza Shah's reign, a more serious critical approach to Orientalist works on the Prophetic biography emerged, leading to the publication of independent critiques. Some scholars also critiqued Orientalist views within their discussions on the Sira. The present research aimed to outline the historical trajectory of the critical approach to Orientalist studies on the Prophetic biography in the works of Iranian Sira writers during the second Pahlavi era and categorize these works based on their independent perspectives. This was accomplished through a thorough examination of these sources and content analysis. The exploration was conducted on two levels: historical development and content-evolutionary and methodological approaches. The era of Mohammad Reza Shah was particularly significant, as it marked the period when the critical approach to Orientalist studies on the Prophetic biography gained substantial attention among Iranian Muslim intellectuals. Materials & MethodsThis qualitative study employed a comparative-analytical approach. It aimed to examine historical texts about the Prophet Muhammad written in Iran during the Pahlavi II era. The study compared these texts and identified, categorized, analyzed, and evaluated those works that adopted a critical stance towards Orientalist studies of the Prophet's biography. This research was fundamental in purpose as it sought to explore publications related to the Prophet's biography from the Pahlavi II era with the goal of identifying and explaining the methodologies and approaches commonly used in critiquing Orientalist narratives. Research FindingsThis study revealed a significant evolution in the critical approach to Orientalist studies on the Prophetic biography (Sira) in Iran during the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. Beginning in 1941 with Mohammad Ali Khalili's work, "The Influence of the Personality of Muhammad, the Leader of Mankind", a systematic critique emerged among Iranian Sira writers. This critique developed along two primary methodologies: theological and historical-theological. Key findings included: Theological Lens: Authors like Mohammad Ali Ansari and Ja'far Sobhani employed a theological framework to address Orientalist narratives. Sobhani's "The Eternal Light" critiqued Orientalist views while recounting historical events, highlighting the integration of theological perspectives into historical analysis. Historical-Theological Approach: Seyyed Ja'far Shahidi's works, "From Birth to Prophethood" and "From Prophethood to Migration", exemplified a historical-theological methodology. Shahidi successfully blended historical rigor with theological integrity, ensuring that his critiques of Orientalist perspectives remained anchored in authentic Islamic beliefs. Intellectual Rigor: The study underscored the increasing scholarly attention given to Orientalist critiques, marking a shift toward more rigorous intellectual engagement with these works. This period saw Iranian authors systematically challenging and refining Orientalist narratives, reflecting a deeper understanding of both historical and theological dimensions of the Sira. Normative Practice: By the end of the Pahlavi II era, critiquing Orientalist studies had become a normative practice among Iranian scholars. This shift not only challenged existing narratives, but also contributed to a more nuanced understanding of the Prophet's life and the methodological frameworks used in its study.Overall, the findings highlighted a dynamic interplay between theology and history in Iranian Sira scholarship, wherein critiques of Orientalist narratives served to reaffirm and refine Islamic teachings about the Prophet Muhammad. Discussion of Results & ConclusionThis study outlined the historical trajectory of the critical approach towards Orientalist works and examined 5 key texts in detail. One of these was Muhammad Ali Ansari's "Muhammad, the Well-Known Prophet", which critiqued Constantin Virgil Gheorghiu's "Muhammad: The Prophet We Must Know". Ansari employed a theological framework, drawing on theological principles, hadith, historical sources, and, at times, verses and lexicography, while placing a strong emphasis on theological aspects in his critique. Similarly, Sheikh Ja'far Sobhani's trilogy—In the School of Revelation, The Great Secret of Prophethood, and Forough Abadiat—followed a comparable approach. While the first two works critiqued texts influenced by Orientalist discourse, Forough Abadiat focused on the historical narrative of the Prophet Muhammad, incorporating critiques of Orientalist views as relevant. The 5th work examined was Seyyed Ja'far Shahidi's 2-volume series, "From Birth to Mission of the Prophet" and "From Mission of the Prophet to Hijrah". Unlike the previous texts, Shahidi adopted a historical-theological approach. He adhered to rigorous historical methodologies while remaining committed to theological integrity and authentic beliefs. Overall, it could be concluded that during the Pahlavi II era, both theological and historical-theological approaches were employed in critiques of Orientalist writings and perspectives. These works have served as foundational texts for subsequent critical discourse in this field.
History (General) and history of Europe, History of Asia
The article deals with inceptive constructions in Lithuanian in a systemic way. In the article a thorough overview of eighteen Lithuanian verbs taking infinitives as their complements is given. They are (given in the preterital form): pradėjo, ėmė (‘started’; ‘began’); puolė, šoko, metėsi (orig. ‘rushed at, to’; ‘jum- ped forward’); suskato, suskubo, sukruto, subruzdo, sujudo (orig. ‘stirred’; ‘moved’; ‘bustled up’); prapliupo, pratrūko (orig. ‘burst’; ‘broke open’; ‘gushed’; ‘spouted’), pasiuto and (synonymous with it) pašėlo (orig. ‘went mad’; ‘got furious’); leidosi, pasileido (orig. ‘let, allowed, permitted oneself’); griebėsi (/ griebė), kibo (orig. ‘grasp’; ‘get hold of’). When used in a construction with the infinitive, these verbs serve the grammatical function of inceptive markers designating the beginning (or start) of an infinitival event. They thus belong to the family of so-called phasal verbs, and the constructions they underlie are phasal constructions. They are, however, scarcely recognized as such (maybe except for the pradėjo and ėmė constructions with infinitive) in traditional Lithuanian lexicography. A construction grammar approach to the phenomenon of the phasal complementation allows us to treat the inceptive constructions under discussion uniformly, as members of the same grammatical category, and the verbs mentioned above, when serving as inceptive markers of the infinitival event, can reasonably go under separate senses in dictionary entries, especially in the cases when the inceptive constructions these verbs underlie are well entrenched in language usage.
As inceptive markers, the verbs listed above are in different stages of grammaticalization. As can be seen from their original meanings, these inceptive markers were grammaticalized from various lexical sources (resp. source constructions). Many of them still preserve, to a different extent, a vestige of the previous meanings they had in the source constructions. For instance, the inceptive markers puolė, šoko, metėsi, leidosi, pasileido are, in some syntactic contexts, still reminiscent of motion verbs. Accordingly, the range of lexical types of infinitival complements such a “semi-grammaticalized” inceptive marker selects for is to some degree determined by its inherited semantics (backward pull; Traugott 2008, 34). Or, to put it in other words, the inceptive constructions headed by such verbs form their own specific designation zones, or niches (they can overlap more or less, according to the semantic similarity of the head verbs). It goes without discussion that the main inceptive markers in Lithuania are the verbs pradėjo and ėmė: they are the most desemanticized lexemes in the list and can have the widest range of lexical types of infinitives as their complements. Both of these verbs can designate the beginning of not only voluntary but involuntary infinitival events as well. The remaining verbs in the list mostly presuppose agentive, intentional referents as their subjects. Exceptions here are the verbs prapliupo, pratrūko and pasiuto, pašėlo which designate the beginning of spontaneous, uncontrolled events. Except for pradėjo and ėmė, which are indifferent in this respect, other inceptive markers in the list designate the beginning of intensive, energetic infinitival events.
According to their inherited semantics (or the semantics developed in the course of grammaticalization) all
inceptive markers in the list can be divided into minor groups. The members of these groups, with respect to infinitival complementation (resp. designation tendencies) share with each other one or another common feature. From a cognitive linguistics perspective all these head verbs can be seen as members of the same grammatical category (that of the inceptive markers) interconnected with each other in a network according to the principle of Ludwig Wittgenstein’s (1958) family resemblances. The fact that in some neutral contexts these verbs can, in their inceptive function, be used interchangeably, gives us empirical grounds to state that the corresponding inceptive constructions share the same schematic meaning. This fact, following William Croft’s (2001, 18) conventions, can formally be represented as a form-meaning pairing: [[HeadV CompVINF]
[process inception]]. Of course, the schematic meaning of the category of inceptive constructions is best
instantiated by its prototypical members headed by the verbs pradėjo and ėmė. These verbs, correspondingly, take the highest position on the prototypicality scale of the inceptive markers.
As the semantic analysis of the data in the samples compiled from the Corpus of Modern Lithuanian shows, even the inceptive constructions headed by the same verb represent different stages of grammaticalization. For example, even some constructions of the verb puolė with infinitive (as a quantitative analysis of the Corpus data shows, this inceptive marker takes third place on the prototypicality scale, just after the verbs pradėjo and ėmė) may be, without sufficient context, ambiguous between intentional and inceptive readings, the former being inherited from the source construction. The probability of the intentional reading is higher when the verb (which happens rarely) selects for the perfective infinitive, but in some cases such a reading is still an option in the default cases of the construction when the verb selects for the imperfective infinitive. From the emergent grammar (Hopper 2011, 26–29) perspective, adopted in the article, all such “semi-grammaticalized” cases in the samples can reasonably be seen as instantiations of the category of inceptive constructions along with its more grammaticalized instances.
In overviewing in detail the semantic distribution of the inceptive markers in the list, each within the group of its closest semantic allies, an attempt was made to establish their source constructions and to trace their potential paths of grammaticalization. For instance, the verbs puolė and šoko are originally typical motion predicates designating rushing at, to or jumping forward (from the rest position) of the subject referent. Correspondingly, the source constructions of the inceptive constructions headed by these verbs are motion constructions and, importantly, their structural extension with infinitive gives rise to purpose constructions, where the added infinitive expresses the purpose of the motion. The latter could easily be reanalyzed into the corresponding inceptive constructions. Naturally, the verbs puolė and šoko first of all develop their inceptive marker function in the construction with infinitives designating quick and energetic movement, such as running, pursuing, or chasing. The next stop on the path of grammaticalization of the inceptive constructions these verbs underlie is when their infinitival complements designate events that imply motion (for example, puolė ieškoti (ko nors) ‘started (lit. rushed) to search (for somebody or something)’) or just presuppose it. In the latter case, in the frame of the infinitive, a motion of the subject referent towards the place where she starts (or intends to start) the infinitival event is presupposed (for example, Jis puolė (ką) mušti ‘He started (lit. rushed) to beat (somebody)’). In all these cases the inherited motion component in the semantics of the head verbs of the inceptive constructions is supported by the very semantics of its infinitives, it is more or less present. In the routine of usage, though, this presupposed motion of the subject referent towards the destination can easily be conceived subjectively by the speaker (/ hearer) (when she covers the distance only in her mind). Through this cognitive mechanism, called subjectification by Ronald Langacker (2000, 297–315), the motion component in the semantics of the head verbs is backgrounded and, respectively, their grammatical function (that of the inceptive markers) is foregrounded. Thus, in the constructions of this kind their head verbs, originating as the motion predicates, are prepared to take as their infinitival complements lexical types that have nothing to do with the concept of motion. For instance, they can designate the begin- ning of the verbal event, as in Ji puolė jo klausinėti ‘She started to interrogate him’. Such instances represent the last stage of the grammaticalization of the inceptive markers under discussion. As it is revealed in the article, subjectification took part in the processes of grammaticalization of some other Lithuanian inceptive marker as well. In this respect other cognitive devices, such as conceptual metaphor or / and metonymy, are also worth mentioning. For instance, they played a significant role in the adaptation of the verbs prapliupo and pratrūko, originally designating phenomena of the physical world, to designate outburst of some emo- tion, such as joy (for example, Ji prapliupo juoktis ‘She began (lit. burst) to laugh / laughing’), sadness (for example, Ji pratrūko verkti ‘She began (lit. burst) to cry / crying’) or anger (for example, Jis prapliupo keiktis ‘He began (lit. burst) to swear / swearing’).
In the article the judgments about the entrenchment of the Lithuanian inceptive markers in the language usage were substantiated by quantitative analysis of the data extracted from the Corpus of Modern Lithuanian (one may reasonably assume that the entrenchment of such functional words is indicative of their gram- maticalization). These judgments, as was mentioned above, are of importance for lexicographical practice. The samples for the quantitative analysis were mainly compiled from the fiction register of the Corpus that is in many respects reminiscent of the spoken language. In some cases, though, the relevant data from the mass media register of the Corpus were added. For these samples only inceptive constructions with preterital forms of their head verbs were picked out from the register (or registers), as they are assumed to be the most representative of the narrative contexts characteristic of the Corpus. The judgments on the entrenchment of the inceptive markers were mainly based on the number of hits of the constructions they underlie in the register. Additionally, in some cases the productivity indexes for the corresponding construction types were calculated. The productivity index consists of the number of hapaxes (lexical types of infinitival complements that occur only once in the sample) divided by the total number of those lexical types here — it characterizes the extensibility of the construction type. Thus understood, the productivity of the construction type is expected to correlate with the entrenchment of its head verb in language usage. Because of the lack of the data in the Corpus, though, in most cases (except for the inceptive constructions headed by the verbs pradėjo, ėmė and puolė) one cannot compile reliable samples from the same and a sufficient number (for example,
100) of running lines featuring the construction types under discussion, so as to get productivity indexes for these construction types that might have comparability value. So, in the judgments on the entrenchment of the inceptive markers the productivity indexes for the corresponding construction types played only a subsidiary role in most cases.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
The sphere of “Education” can be understood in terms of culture, knowledge, axiology, etc. This indicates the integrative and multi-aspect nature of the content behind lexemes such as education, learning, teaching, and studying. The main aspect of this article is lexicographic, with the aim of determining the scope and structure of the lexical set of words comprising the ideographic sphere of “Education” in modern Russian language. The work was carried out as part of the development of the project “Universal Ideographic Dictionary-Thesaurus of the Russian” by the Ural Semantic School under the guidance of L. G. Babenko. Materials from various dictionaries prepared by this team of researchers were used. Methods used included component analysis of lexical meaning and ideographic classification. Various types of relationships organizing this lexical set were identified in order to present a modeling of the “Education” sphere as a fragment of the denotative-ideographic world map. Examples of words and word groups related by hyper-hyponymy, meronymy, synonymy, and antonymy within the denotative-ideographic groups of this sphere are provided. It is shown that the lexical set of words representing the sphere of “Education,” like many other similar classes of words denotatively linked to human social life, is structured not hierarchically, but in accordance with components of represented situations.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
The article examines the research activities of Aleksej Kantserovskij, teacher of the Kazan Theological Seminary. In addition to the main teaching job he was engaged in scientific work compiling a Mari-Russian dictionary. Unfortunately, the monument remained in handwritten form. The dictionary presents the vocabulary of Meadow Mari and Hill Mari. In addition, the lexicographic work contains a brief comparative grammar for both varieties.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17721/APULTP.2021.43.97-124
The general theory of translation is an interdisciplinary area, predominantly linguistic but also closely allied to psychology, ethnography, area studies, etc. It is based on the application of linguistic theory to a specific type of speech behavior, i.e. translation. Translation has a subject-matter of its own (the process of translation) and uses the data of contrastive linguistics merely as a point of departure. Translation may be viewed, as an interlingual communicative act in which at least 3 participants are involved: the sender of source information (the author of the SL message), the translator who acts in dual capacity – as the receptor of SL message and as the sender of the equivalent TL message and the receptor of the TL message (translation). In producing the TL text the translator changes its plan of expression (linguistic form) while its plan of content (meaning) should remain unchanged. That means, above all, that whatever the text says and whatever it implies should be understood in the same way by both the SL user for whom it was originally included and by the TL user. It is therefore the translator's duty to make available to the TL receptor the maximum amount of information, carried by linguistic signs, including both their denotational (referential) meanings (i.e. information about the extralinguistic reality which they denote) and their emotive-stylistic connotation. The Ukrainian legal terms such as післядипломна освіта "postgraduate education" and дошкільна освіта "preschool education" are both construed by means of affixation, or pre-fixation, to be more accurate.
Key words: translation, analysis, interdisciplinary, subject-matter, correspondence, linguistic, message, extralinguistic, LSP-teaching, practitioner.
Information about the authors: Irina Andriivna Chernukha – PhD, associate professor; associate professor of the department of foreign languages; Institute of International Relations; Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv.
Mariia Gennadiivna Rozhkova – PhD, professor of the department of foreign languages; Institute of International Relations; Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv.
E-mail: irina.chernukha7@gmail.com ; mariia0021@gmail.com
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The aim of the article is to present a concept of the Polish Biographical Dictionary (Polski Słownik Biograficzny, PSB), which has been published in Krakow since 1935 as a multi-volume publication of the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAN) and the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences (PAU), and realised by the Tadeusz Manteuffel Institute of History of the PAN. Over 28,000 biographies of people associated with Poland (and with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Commonwealth of Both Nations, and their fiefs), who lived or operated in the country and abroad from the time of legendary Duke Popiel (9th century) to 2000, have been published in 52 volumes so far. The concept of the PSB is presented in the historiographic context as well as the context of contemporary problems and challenges that the PSB is facing.
A significant number of multilingual dictionaries (in at least three languages) were published in Romania after the Revolution of December 1989. In the context of an unprecedented evolution of multilingualism, experts in various fields, as well as higher education professors identify specific communication needs and potential users and foresee preferential contexts of dictionary use. This article presents the outcomes of a study on the main categories of users and contexts of use of multilingual dictionaries edited in Romania after 1989. This analytical approach targets a representative sample of dictionaries selected on the basis of three criteria imposed by the research limits: temporal (dictionaries edited in the period 1990–2010), idiomatic (works presenting the list of entries in Romanian) and formal (the multilingual character stated explicitly in the title of the dictionary). The first part of the article accounts for the stage of research related to dictionary users and a short presentation of Romanian lexicography in general and of multilingual lexicography in particular. The second part of the study describes the methodology and proposes a systematization of the categories of potential users and the contexts of dictionary use as envisaged by the authors of the dictionaries under analysis.
Philology. Linguistics, Languages and literature of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania
Public enlightenment and civic education were Štampar’s obsessions since the beginnings of his career, but he also showed great interest in improving health education in schools as well as in teaching at faculties of medicine and providing long-term education of graduate physicians. He was first recommended for professorship as early as 1922, but it was only after the founding of the Banovina (Banate) of Croatia that he was granted a license for working at the Faculty of Medicine in Zagreb. He was 51 at the time. Soon afterwards, in 1940, he became Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in Zagreb but, unfortunately, World War II interrupted his career. He was interned in Austria during the war and, after its end, continued working as a university professor and director of the School of Public Health. In 1947, he became involved in undergraduate and postgraduate studies at the School of Public Health. From 1952 until his death in summer 1958, he was elected five times in a row as Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in Zagreb. During that time, he founded the second faculty of medicine in Croatia, in Rijeka in 1956. He also opened a college for nurses within the frame of the Faculty of Medicine in the mid-1950s, and introduced a two-year school for nurses, which they attended after completing elementary education. Thus, A. Štampar was effectively involved in faculty teaching for only 15 years, mainly towards the end of his life: two years before World War II and 13 years after it. Nevertheless, his work left a deep trace, above all in the form of constant efforts to affirm preventive medicine, hygiene, and social medicine.
The paper is about Modern Greek culinary lexis compounds and their treatment in bilingual lexicography. We list and classify Modern Greek lexicalized items, then check to what extent the lexicographical treatment connects them with various French nominal locutions. Within the framework of this contrastive study, we examine especially the presence of that kind of Modern Greek lexicalized items in a French-Greek dictionary, where corresponding nominal locutions are not lexicalized.
The Kildin Saami language now belongs to the group of critically endangered languages. The functioning of the Kildin Saami language is limited to the personal sphere. Only an âexternalâ approach can be used to preserve the Kildin Saami language. One of such âexternalâ approaches is Kola Saami lexicography the main purpose of which is the preservation of the unique aspects of the culture and language of an indigenous people. The article presents the results of my research and lexicographical work â dictionaries of the Saami spiritual culture lexis and of the Saami traditional trades and husbandry lexis.
Russian post-revolutionary abbreviations in the first bilingual Russian dictionaries
The process of real expansion of abbreviations started at the end of 19th century and it developed tremendously in 20th century. The process of creating abbreviations in Russian became active after World War I and suddenly became widespread particularly in the post-revolutionary period. At that time abbreviations were created spontaneously and in a disorganized way, yet numerous creations were commonly used. The period of time during which they were used was usually short, compare: ОСОАВИАХИМ (= Общество содействия обороне, авиации и химическому строительству). In most cases they were names of political parties, combat, revolutionary, social and other organizations, for instance: волисполком, военкомат, ревком. This characteristic type of Russian lexis was very troublesome for Polish intellectuals who were trying to code the Polish Russian language, i.e. specific, language code with many Russian and Soviet idioms that was used by the Polish living in the Soviet Union during the post-revolutionary period. Attempts to standardize abbreviations were reflected in translation dictionaries (Polish-Russian and Russian-Polish) published in Moscow in the 30s of 20th century.
Русские послереволюционные аббревиатуры в первых советских двуязычных словарях
Процесс настоящей экспансии аббревиатур начался в конце XIX столетия и продолжался, продвигаясь большими темпами, в ХХ веке. В русском языке аббревиация сильно активизировалась после первой мировой войы, особенно бурно распространялась в ранний послереволюционный период. В то время аббревиатуры образовались спонтанно, стихийно, неупорядоченно, но – несмотря на это – многие подобные образования попадали в общенародный обиход. Как правило, их жизнь быстро обрывалась, ср. ОСОАВИАХИМ (= Общество содействия обороне, авиации и химическому строительству). В основном это были названия политических партий, боевых, революционных, общественных и др. организаций, напр.: волисполком, военкомат, ревком. Этот характерный слой русской лексики доставлял много хлопот польским интеллигентам, пытавшимся кодифицировать советский польский язык, этот особый, сильнорусифицированный и советизированный языковой код, используемый поляками, проживавшими в СССР в межвоенный период. Попытки нормализовать образования аббревиатурного типа нашли отражение в переводных словарях (польско-русском и русско-польском), выпущенных в Москве в 30-е годы ХХ в.
Ethnology. Social and cultural anthropology, Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
Conversion is a highly efficient and economical word-formation process. It has enriched the English vocabulary considerably; however, translators and lexicographers are faced with the challenge of finding suitable translation equivalents. The study is based on the analysis of the Estonian translation equivalents of over two hundred English denominal verbs in three novels. The results show that apart from the well-established equivalents that can be found both in translations and in the dictionary, the analysis revealed 53 suitable equivalents that were not covered by the dictionary. Two thirds of them were multi-word equivalents; this indicates that multi-word equivalents deserve more attention when compiling bilingual dictionaries. The analysis also revealed 24 meanings with suitable equivalents, which were not listed in the dictionary.
Kokkuvõte. Enn Veldi: Konversiooni abil tuletatud inglise desubstantiivsed verbid ning nende eestikeelsed vasted: tõlgete ja J. Silveti inglise-eesti sõnaraamatu võrdlus. Konversioon on ökonoomne sõnamoodustusprotsess, mis on rikastanud inglise keele sõnavara olulisel määral. Samas on tõlkijate ja leksikograafide ülesanne leida neile sobivad tõlkevasted. Artikkel põhineb üle 200 inglise desubstantiivse verbi tõlkevastete analüüsil, mis esinesid kolmes romaanis. Tulemused näitavad, et lisaks väljakujunenud tõlkevastetele, mis esinevad nii tõlgetes kui sõnaraamatus, leidus tõlgetes 53 sobivat tõlkevastet, mis sõnastikus kajastamist ei leidnud. Kaks kolmandikku neist olid mitmesõnalised vasted, mis näitab, et mitmesõnalised vasted väärivad kakskeelsete sõnaraamatute koostamisel rohkem tähelepanu. Tõlgete analüüs tõi samuti esile 24 tähendust koos sobivate tõlkevastetega, mis sõnastikus kajastamist ei leidnud.
Märksõnad: konversioon, inglise keel, eesti keel, tõlkimine, ekvivalentsus, kakskeelne leksikograafia