Hasil untuk "Social sciences and state - Asia (Asian studies only)"

Andi Puan Maharatu, Marzuki Marzuki

Degradasi moral dan ketidaktaatan terhadap aturan di era disrupsi digital menjadi urgensi utama artikel ini. Artikel ini bertujuan menganalisis mekanisme sinergi antara keluarga, sekolah, dan masyarakat dalam memperkuat pendidikan nilai. Melalui metode studi kepustakaan dengan pendekatan kualitatif-analitis, kajian ini menelaah literatur terkait Teori Ekologi Bronfenbrenner dan model kemitraan Joyce Epstein. Temuan menunjukkan bahwa pembentukan kepatuhan secara internal memerlukan koherensi antara pola asuh otoritatif keluarga, hidden curriculum sekolah, dan modal sosial masyarakat. Penelitian ini menyimpulkan bahwa revitalisasi konsep Tripusat Pendidikan melalui kolaborasi tripartit diperlukan untuk mengatasi disonansi nilai pada peserta didik. Namun, keterbatasan kajian terletak pada hambatan generalisasi implementasi akibat kurangnya literasi digital orang tua dan kesiapan pedagogis guru. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan penguatan kapasitas pemangku kepentingan dan transformasi sekolah sebagai integrator ekosistem pendidikan karakter.  

Yuan Zhou

Central Asia is crucial to China’s strategic goals, including energy security, regional stability, economic expansion, and geopolitical influence. After the Soviet Union’s collapse, China rapidly established diplomatic ties with Central Asian states, forming strategic partnerships exemplified by the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Silk Road Economic Belt initiative launched in 2013. However, the opaque nature of Chinese foreign policy complicates direct analysis of its regional strategies. Within this context, the tightly controlled narrative of Chinese state media serves as an essential indicator of governmental positions and policy directions. This study conducts a thorough analysis of Central Asian portrayals in prominent Chinese state media outlets, specifically People’s Daily and Global Times, spanning the last two decades. Employing quantitative text analysis techniques, this study tracks and elucidates China’s state media coverage of Central Asia, shedding light on the strategic narratives crafted by the Chinese government. The findings demonstrate that both the intensity and thematic focus of media coverage shift in tandem with changes in China’s diplomatic posture and strategic objectives. These adjustments in media narratives are indicative of geopolitical and economic objectives, aligning closely with China’s diplomatic engagements and strategic shifts. This nuanced analysis provides deep insights into the mechanics of China’s policy toward Central Asia, offering substantial implications for policymakers, academics, and strategic analysts focused on Asia-Pacific geopolitics. Moreover, the findings lay the groundwork for future investigative directions, proposing the adoption of qualitative content analysis and detailed country-specific studies to deepen the understanding of China’s influence in Central Asia.

Zainab Mohsin, Muhammad Usama Anwar, Ammar Bin Tariq et al.

This study examined the relationship between the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), state capacity, and the political economy of development in Pakistan. The research aimed to explore how large-scale infrastructure initiatives influenced governance structures, economic opportunities, and regional development patterns. A qualitative and descriptive research design was adopted, and data were analysed through descriptive statistical methods to evaluate key development indicators associated with CPEC implementation. The findings indicated that infrastructure development represented the most significant perceived outcome of the corridor initiative, recording the highest mean value (M = 4.18, SD = 0.67). Economic growth opportunities and trade connectivity also showed strong positive perceptions among respondents (M = 4.12, SD = 0.69), suggesting that improved logistics networks and industrial investments contributed to enhanced economic activity. Institutional capacity strengthening recorded a mean value of 4.07 (SD = 0.72), reflecting improvements in administrative coordination and strategic planning mechanisms related to development management. Regional infrastructure accessibility also demonstrated positive outcomes (M = 4.08, SD = 0.70), although slightly lower values for rural development (M = 3.96) and social development opportunities (M = 3.98) indicated concerns regarding the equitable distribution of development benefits. The findings suggested that CPEC functioned not only as a physical infrastructure initiative but also as an institutional and economic transformation framework that influenced governance systems and development planning in Pakistan. The study concluded that strengthening governance transparency, promoting inclusive regional development, and enhancing institutional capacity would be essential for maximizing the long-term developmental benefits of CPEC. References Afzal, F., Ghafar, A., & Farooq, M. U. 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Thi-Ha Trinh, K. L. Nguyen, Thi Phuong Thao Nguyen et al.

This study aims to systematically review the literature on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in the hospitality sector over the period 2013–2023. To achieve this objective, the research employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method combined with bibliometric analysis to synthesize and evaluate studies related to CSR in the hospitality industry. The data for this study were collected from two major academic databases, Scopus and Web of Science (WOS), resulting in a total of 64 selected articles for detailed analysis. The findings indicate a significant increase in CSR-related research in the hospitality sector over the past five years. Geographically, the most active research areas include Spain, China, the United States, the United Kingdom, and several Asian countries. Additionally, quantitative research methods dominate the field. Bibliometric analysis identifies seven research clusters grouped into four major themes: (1) CSR related to employees; (2) CSR related to customers; (3) CSR communication; and (4) CSR and sustainability. Among these themes, CSR related to employees has garnered the most attention from researchers, reflecting its importance in the hospitality sector. Finally, most of the research focuses on the high-end hotel segment and ignores the small-scale hotel segment. This can be explained by the fact that upscale hotels prioritize corporate image, reputation diffusion, and business performance when implementing CSR strategies. However, small-scale hotels account for a significant proportion of the industry and play an essential role in economic, social, and environmental sustainability. Given their impact on various stakeholders, future research should pay more attention to small-scale hotels to assess their willingness to engage in CSR, the effectiveness of CSR initiatives on business performance, and the broader implications of CSR in this segment. This study not only synthesizes CSRrelated research in the hotel industry over the past decade but also highlights research gaps and future directions. The findings provide valuable insights for researchers in identifying key areas for further exploration. Notably, this study is the first to apply a systematic literature review (SLR) combined with bibliometric analysis to identify key literature sources and research themes in the domain of CSR in hospitality. By doing so, it offers significant contributions to both academia and industry practitioners, providing a comprehensive overview of the current state of CSR research in hospitality and its potential future developments.

Oktaheroe Ramsi, Anak Agung Bayu Perwita, Yermia Hendarwoto

Southeast Asia ranks among the most disaster-prone regions globally, owing to its complex geological features and tropical climate. In response, ASEAN established the ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response (AADMER), the region’s first legally binding framework for disaster management. Despite its significance, AADMER's implementation faces structural limitations, including the principle of non-interference, disparities in member state capacities, and bureaucratic delays that hinder rapid mobilization during the critical "golden time" of disaster response. This study examines Indonesia’s defense diplomacy in reinforcing AADMER as a regulatory basis for developing a regional First Responder mechanism that is timely, coordinated, and effective. Adopting a descriptive qualitative methodology, the research analyzes Indonesia’s engagement through platforms such as the ASEAN Defence Ministers’ Meeting (ADMM) and ADMM-Plus, alongside the roles of key national institutions including the National Disaster Management Authority (BNPB), the Indonesian Armed Forces (TNI), the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and cooperation with the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian Assistance (AHA Centre). The findings highlight Indonesia’s strategic role as a country frequently affected by disasters in advancing civil-military interoperability, joint disaster response exercises, and rapid deployment mechanisms under AADMER. Indonesia’s defense diplomacy emerges not only as a tool of traditional security but also as a form of soft power that enhances regional solidarity and institutional legitimacy. The study concludes that Indonesia’s leadership is pivotal in realizing the vision of One ASEAN, One Response through the establishment of a regulation-based, consensus-driven, and collectively operational First Responder system for the region.

Selusi Ambrogio

It is a mainstream assumption that Asian thinkers, and Chinese in particular, have devoted much of their speculative energies to investigating emptiness and nothingness, whereas these philosophical concepts would have been neglected (if not abhorred) in Western thought. As Sorensen (2022, 77) says: “Having climbed to the precipice of being, the Chinese and Indians pan across the vista of nothingness. They see an open horizon of opportunity. The Greeks look down the cliff. They suffer vertigo”. In this article, we set ourselves the task of questioning this assumption by presenting two authors who represent opposing tendencies within their respective traditions. On the one hand, Wang Fuzhi 王夫之 (1619–1692), normally described as a “materialist” and a bitter opponent of the “emptiness” and “nothingness” of Buddhists and Daoists. On the other, Charles de Bovelles (1479–1566), author of the short treatise Liber de Nihilo, in which nothingness is posited as necessary to God for his existence and the unfolding of his power. Despite being in different traditions and with different visions of nothingness, we will see how their respective thoughts can meet and engage in dialogue in a productive manner.

Alexandra de Araújo Tilman, Hermenejildo Ribeiro De Costa, M. B. Carvalho et al.

This study presents as primary research to understand the Importance of the Role of Educational Supervisors, In Their Contribution to the Teaching-Learning Process in the early years, highlighting that the role of School Supervisors together with the pedagogical team is to promote change in the teaching-learning process, enabling students to develop beyond school walls, not only as a future profession but also as a citizen. The literature review is based on authors such as Ferreira; Lebanon; Medina, and others from Brazil who discussed the role of Education Supervisors are very closely related to the current educational development process. The State of Timor-Leste is one of the states in Southeast Asia which is currently also a work partner, especially in the field of education with other countries in various Asian and European regions such as; Malaysia, Indonesia, Portugal, Japan, Australia, Korea, Cuba, America, China, and several other countries. The bibliographical study to achieve the proposed objectives, developed in a qualitative approach, which allows a comprehensive projection of existing, discussed, and studied topics, shows the phenomenon as a whole and ensures an abundance of data, thus understanding that the performance of school supervisors should be focused on building teacher connections, analyzing facilities and obstacles faced by an institutional body, both government and private, and ensuring that the school environment fulfills a social role in disseminating knowledge of the importance of developing supervision in every educational institution in the country of Timor-Leste.

Mübarek İpek

The British Empire pursued its imperialist and colonialist policies in the Middle East, America, Asia, Australia and Africa for many years. In order to maintain the dominance of the Empire and the British Crown on these continents, individuals affiliated with political, military, religious, commercial and scientific organisations fought hard. The main goal of these individuals was to protect, develop and glorify the imperialist policies of their states against enemy states. Institutions acted in unison in pursuit of this goal, and at times undertook initiatives in support of each other. Scientific, commercial, political and religious organisations received the necessary support through this co-operation and served the imperialist policies of the state. The organisations in question sent orientalists to Asia, the Balkans and the Middle East to conduct research. Orientalists carried out studies on the history, archaeology, geology, botany and geography of the regions they visited. Under the umbrella of science(!), orientalists served the political and military interests of their countries. In this study, the contribution of British imperialist policy to orientalist institutions and studies and the ways in which British orientalists supported the imperialist policy of their country with their researches are analysed. In addition, while preparing this research, various works in the field of social sciences were analysed in order to reach the basic findings and the relationship between imperialism and orientalism was tried to be revealed.

Yukiko Kuramoto

This study explores Japan’s unique economic development approach embedded in its Official Development Assistance (ODA) policy toward Indonesia from 1954 to the end of the Cold War. As one of the earliest and most significant recipients of Japan’s ODA, Indonesia serves as a critical case to understand how Japan’s foreign aid strategy was shaped by its own postwar development experience and foreign policy objectives. Japan’s ODA policy emphasized five key principles: promoting a self-help effort system, seeking mutual interests between Japan and Asian countries, supporting a state-led economy with long-term development planning, encouraging efficient public-private cooperation, and aiming to establish an Asian economic bloc. Through a historical and qualitative analysis of official documents, institutional reports, and academic literature, this study finds that Japan’s ODA approach prioritized economic infrastructure and human capital investment over social sector aid, differentiating it from Western donors. Japan’s aid to Indonesia was not only a tool for promoting development but also served Japan’s economic security and regional leadership ambitions. The implementation of these principles was evident in Indonesia’s acceptance of Yen loans, long-term development planning under the Suharto regime, and Japan’s involvement in the establishment of regional frameworks like the Asian Development Bank and APEC. Ultimately, Japan’s ODA to Indonesia reflected a strategic blend of developmental support and national interest, setting the foundation for Japan’s long-term role in shaping the regional order in Asia.

Md. Tota Miah, Zoltán Lakner, Mária Fekete-Farkas

The increasing social and environmental challenges, particularly poverty, have brought social entrepreneurship, a highly researched domain, to the attention of academicians. It has emerged as a critical issue in the context of economic development and societal well-being. The current study presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis in the field of social entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation to explain the current state, geographical performance, and future research agenda. Utilizing VOS viewer (version 1.6.20) and R Studio software (version 4.3.2), 461 final articles were examined and extracted from the Web of Science database, covering the period from 1998 to 2022. The findings reveal a significant increase in research activity in this field since 2009, indicating a growing demand for it as a solution to social challenges. Notably, the years 2021–2022 witnessed a remarkable 55% surge in research output. The Sustainability Journal ranks first as the most productive source, followed by the Journal of Cleaner Production. The most prolific authors are Nina Kolleck from Germany, David Littlewood, and Diane Holt from the UK. Additionally, this study assesses the geographic distribution of research contributions, highlighting regions with relatively lower research performance, such as South Asian and African countries. Leading in this domain are the UK, Spain, the USA, and European institutions. Co-citation patterns reveal four thematic clusters: (1) dynamics of social entrepreneurship; (2) sustainable entrepreneurial ecosystem; (3) social entrepreneurship for social innovation; and (4) integrated sustainable entrepreneurship, shedding light on critical aspects and the intellectual structure of this domain. Finally, keyword co-occurrence analysis identifies emerging research areas, e.g., entrepreneurial development, the role of higher education, enterprise collaboration, inclusive growth, and socio-economic empowerment. This research provides valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners committed to achieving sustainable social change.

Ardiansyah, Wandi, Suparto et al.

Abstract This study aims to look at the bibliometric trends in state administrative law articles. Then this study uses VOSviewer analysis which aims to analyze publication trends in the form of bibliometric maps collected from the Scopus database. The research findings show that there are 196 articles on state administrative law published in Scopus indexed journals between 2017 and 2021. In terms of document types by year, research documents on state administrative law only increased significantly in 2020. In the type of document based on the author, the author Hoffman is the author with the most documents. In document types by affiliation, research publications from Maria Curie University-Skłodowska are the top document producers. In terms of document types by country, the United States is the top document producer. In the types of documents based on subject, research is dominated by social sciences. Whereas for document types based on citations, articles in 2017–2019 are the results of publications with the most citations. The implications of this research are related to the emphasis on aspects of collaboration and integration in the research partnership system by state administrative law researchers at universities on various continents, especially the Asian continent. Furthermore, this research still has limitations because it only analyzes documents in the Scopus database in 2017–2021. Therefore, we suggest that further research be carried out from a wider range in order to emphasize the need for increased attention to the field of state administrative law. Impact Statement This article reviews publication trends from the Scopus database related to state administrative law from 2017-2021. These findings show that there are 196 articles about state administrative law published in Scopus indexed journals between 2017 and 2021, where from the types of documents from year to year, documents research on state administrative law only experienced a significant increase in 2020 (61). In terms of document types by country and region, the United States is the largest document producer (40). In terms of document types based on subject, research is dominated by social sciences (62.08%). Meanwhile, for document types based on citations, articles from 2017-2019 are the publications with the most citations. Currently, international publications on state administrative law are still underdeveloped, and there is not much interest in them. Then, the production of state administrative law research in various Scopus indexed research journals is territorially only produced by countries on the American and European continents, and is still not found in countries on the Asian continent.

A. Rippa, Galen Murton, M. Rest

Abstract:In this article we review the most recent literature on infrastructure in the social sciences and show its relevance for the study of Highland Asia. We consider the spatial, scalar, and temporal aspects of construction and, in so doing, develop new conceptual tools to evaluate the social and political configurations of states and citizens in some particularly “out of the way places.” Importantly, we show that many of the largescale development interventions planned throughout the region defy the “backgroundness” and invisible “infra-ness” normally associated with the term infrastructure, especially with respect to recent social science and history of technology studies scholarship. On the contrary, drawing on Aihwa Ong's concept of hyperbuilding, we argue that many new highways, dams, railroads, and the like are highly conspicuous, both visually and discursively. Long before their actual construction starts, the “infrastructural imaginaries” behind such projects already work as a purported promise for future prosperity and connectivity and lend legitimacy to logics of “the state” in areas historically difficult to access and hard to govern.

J. Nieuwenhuis

Neighborhood and community effects studies have informed urban policies in the West since three decades. Since about ten years, this research line is seen increasingly in East and Southeast Asia as well. As an emerging field, the literature has yet to be critically reviewed and its body of literature provides a unique opportunity to study the effects that different research communities might have on its development. This systematic review collects 165 studies and gives a critical appraisal of this literature, specifically focusing on publication bias. Findings show that “true ” neighborhood effects might be overestimated. Health research shows greater publication bias than human geography and general social science. Studies by only local scholars are more prone to bias than studies from collaborative teams or only nonlocal scholars, suggesting that this field is relatively early in its life-cycle or that publication pressure is much higher in Asia compared to the West.

Henrik Kloppenborg Møller

This article discusses how the gemstone jade mediates guanxi (‘personal relationships’), and how guanxi mediates jade trade in China. Outlining some affective, spiritual, moral and somatic meanings and efficacies of jade, especially as a gift, the article first discusses how jade materialities, cultural history and ontology influence human interactions with, and through, jade in contemporary China. Secondly, the article presents some more economically instrumental investments in, and exchanges of, jade and discusses why and how a national anti-corruption campaign engendered fluctuations in Chinese jade markets. Finally, the article discusses how guanxi ideally forges personal trust that facilitates transactions of jade, even though some younger jade traders consider guanxi insincere. Studies of guanxi in China’s reform era have conventionally given analytical primacy to how social relationships structure and give meaning to material exchanges. In contrast, this article argues that jade itself can be a catalyst for social relationships that span affect and instrumentality. Combining object–oriented, ontological and institutionalist approaches, the article conceptualises the outlined relations between jade and guanxi as material–social congruity and contingency in the Chinese context.

Mark R. Thompson

The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed enormous governance deficits globally. Several populist strongmen practiced “medical populism” – ignoring scientific advice, proffering denials, and blaming others. More technocratic leaders recognised its severity, implementing strict lockdowns. But some failed to adopt more flexible restrictions once testing improved due to local enforcement difficulties, termed “blunt force regulation.” Although neither a pandemic denialist nor an obtuse technocrat, Philippine president Rodrigo R. Duterte's response combined aspects of both approaches with blame shifting and one-size-fits-all lockdowns while also securitising the crisis. Utilising methods developed during his bloody “war on drugs,” Duterte imposed a heavily militarised approach, scapegoated supposedly disobedient Filipinos ( pasaway ) and bullied local politicians. While the Philippines has been among the worst pandemic performers globally, Duterte's approval ratings remained robust. It is argued “brute force governance” undermined the dynamics of accountability, enabling him to win public approval despite policy failure.

Patricia M. Thornton

As the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) celebrated its centenary, its expanding role in penetrating, regulating, and reshaping social organisations (社会组织, shehui zuzhi ) seemed to signal a decisive shift in not only the arrangement, but also the balance, of power between the state, the voluntary sector, and the party in favour of the latter. Beginning with the recent reform “decoupling” professional associations and chambers of commerce (行业协会商会, hangye xiehui shanghui ) from state management, which has been cited in official documents as a model for “separating the state from society” and an initial step in further reducing the state management in other realms of activity, this article considers broad trends in the CCP's historical relationship with social organisations, particularly alongside its shifting relationship with the state apparatus after 1949, over time. Working through both the CCP's governing practice of “documentary politics” and, more recently, initiatives to expand “rule by law” under Xi, I argue that the party has vastly increased its power, presence, and control over both as it marked its centenary, albeit at times donning the mask of the state to do so. I conclude that the party's continued advance under Xi is occurring at the expense of both the autonomy of the state administration and that of social forces.

Daniel Beben

This book is a much revised version of a PhD dissertation. The author tackles the task of describing and analyzing the social and intellectual world of Central Asia, in particular Bukhara, during the long nineteenth century. This long century is practically coterminous with the rule of the Manghit dynasty (1753 – 1920); it lasts from the reestablishment of autochthonous rule following the Iranian intermezzo (Nadir Shah ’ s conquest of Transoxiana and Khwarazm in the 1740s) to the end of autocratic rule after the October Revolution and the subsequent establishment of the Bukharan People ’ s Soviet Republic. The polymaths quoted in the title are Islamic scholars: ulema, graduates, alumni, and teachers of the famous Bukharan madrassas. Pickett not only considers them scholars, legal experts, qadis, or muftis, but also mystics, poets, healers, experts in occult sciences, astronomers, and astrologers, hence the term “ polymath ” in the book ’ s title. The world of these polymaths was undoubtedly the Persianate (Sunni) sphere, covering — in the nineteenth century — still much of the eastern Islamic world, in particular Central Asia and what is today Afghanistan, parts of the Indian subcontinent, and reaching out into the Turkic-speaking world, the steppes of Eurasia, Tatarstan, southern Siberia, and Xinjiang. These regions formed the catchment area of the Bukharan educational system, with Bukhara and wider Transoxiana at the center, followed by the mountainous regions that today belong to Tajikistan and the northern rim of the Hindu Kush. All other regions had a more marginal position in this world. Pickett shows that these areas were indeed home for the majority of students of the Bukharan madrassas. Students from Shi ʿ i Iran were not on the archival record examined in this study. Polymaths primarily in the profound reevaluation of the Bukharan madrassas and their graduates.

Yinghua Li, Lâm Thị Mỹ Dung, Đặng Hồng So'n et al.

ABSTRACT:The cultural or technological variability and homogeneity of lithic industries during the transition from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene in mainland Southeast Asia (SEA) and South China have yet to be clearly deciphered. Using typology as the main method and criterion for comparing lithic industries has failed to reveal either the character of lithic industries or their homogeneity and variability on a regional scale. This article presents a new technological analysis of Hoabinhian stone artifacts preserved in the Museum of Anthropology at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi and compares it with a typical Hoabinhian techno-complex from Laang Spean Cave in Cambodia and a representative cobble-tool industry from Luobidong on Hainan Island, South China. The comparisons suggest that remarkable differences in operational sequence existed not only between South China and the Hoabinhian of SEA, but also between different Hoabinhian assemblages of SEA. This study thus represents an important step forward for deciphering the homogeneity and variability of lithic industries on the larger regional scale of SEA and South China.

Hannah Dittmer

This paper sheds light on the debate the Disney movie Moana sparked on Pacific Islands by reviewing literature from indigenous Pacific anthropologists such as Vicente Diaz, Vilsoni Hereniko, Mārata Tamaira, and Dionne Fonoti. The author analyses the plot of Moana and the general representation of the Pacific Islands in Western movies. Various points of critique on the movie from indigenous Pacific anthropologists are discussed. Despite problems of cultural homogenization, stereotypical representation, and commodification, it is argued that it is short-sighted to view Moana as a mere object of cultural theft. In addressing these issues, the author wants to propose a platform for the plethora of Pacific opinions to discuss how Pacific Islanders are represented in the popular Disney movie Moana and how they may feel about this representation. Furthermore, this research note has the ambitious aim to motivate readers to a more critical and informed consumption of Disney movies.

Takayuki Igarashi

The question of when the government of the Republic of China abandoned “Retaking the Mainland” has not been clearly answered in previous studies. In this article, I attempt to address this by reexamining the transformation of Taiwan’s military strategy. I focus on the preparations for the “Retaking the Mainland” operation, which have been studied extensively, and the efforts to increase defensive capabilities as part of the “Taiwan Defense” operation, which has lesser scholarship. With respect to this period of transformation of Taiwan’s military strategy, a now broadly accepted interpretation was laid out in the 2006 National Defense Report. However, a different perspective was outlined in a 2013 book jointly compiled by Taiwan’s Ministry of National Defense and Academia Historia. The result is that, with respect to the historical shift in military strategy, the official view of the Ministry of National Defense has become somewhat ambiguous. In this article, I advance an alternative view on this period by highlighting two points at which new policies were adopted. There was a move from a strategy of “Offensive Posture” that had been in place since 1949 to a strategy of “Unity of the Offensive and Defensive,” in the Spring of 1969. Subsequently, after the establishment of the “Guidelines for National Unification” in 1991, there was another shift, to a strategy of “Defensive Posture.” As I suggest, the ROC government abandoned the concept of using military force to “Retake the Mainland” in 1991, when it moved to a strategy of “Defensive Posture.”