Kostia Chardonnet, Marc de Visme, Benoît Valiron
et al.
In this paper, we explore the interaction between two monoidal structures: a multiplicative one, for the encoding of pairing, and an additive one, for the encoding of choice. We propose a colored PROP to model computation in this framework, where the choice is parameterized by an algebraic side effect: the model can support regular tests, probabilistic and non-deterministic branching, as well as quantum branching, i.e. superposition. The graphical language comes equipped with a denotational semantics based on linear applications, and an equational theory. We prove the language to be universal, and the equational theory to be complete with respect to this semantics.
A common challenge in direct digital frequency synthesizers (DDFSs) is obtaining high memory compression while maintaining good output signal purity. To address this challenge, in this paper, we present a 16-bit, quadrature direct digital frequency synthesizer (DDFS) that utilizes the second-order Taylor series polynomial interpolation in the phase-to-amplitude conversion. In this approach, the sinusoidal signal is divided into multiple segments, and for each segment, related values are stored into a look-up table (LUT). The amplitude values for each segment are calculated using the stored LUT values and the second-order Taylor series polynomial interpolation. A Python-based model was created to optimize the number of segments, and the resulting design was coded using register-transfer level VHDL. The design is synthesized and implemented on an AMD Artix 7 FPGA, and the implementation results are presented. We show that the proposed design is capable of reaching a very high memory compression ratio of 5178:1. Additionally, the design generates both sine and cosine with high spectral purity utilizing a low number of FPGA resources compared to previous work. With 107 logic slices and 3 DSP slices, the design reaches a spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR) of −102.9 dBc.
A significant challenge arises in the characterization of urban systems, especially regarding the intricate structures of Central Business Districts (CBDs). Conventional models seem insufficient, failing to comprehend the non-linear, network-oriented structure of the city's economic and social dynamics. This creates a disparity between the city's physical, geographical structure and the unseen processes occurring within it. The fundamental inquiry is thus configurational: how can we systematically examine the inherent spatial logic of the CBD to develop a more efficient and predictive planning model? This paper presents a theoretical and methodological model to explore this inquiry, which focuses on Lower Manhattan as the primary subject of analysis. The aim of the research is to develop an analytical model that fosters a relational comprehension of the city as a system. The methodology combines graph-theoretic mathematical coding with spatial syntax analysis to elucidate the fundamental structure of dynamics in the Central Business District. We evaluate vulnerability as an intrinsic characteristic of network topology, apply Prüfer’s code to determine its distinctive structural signature, and employ various syntactic methods to examine its spatial configuration. Q-analysis, Zipf's law, Markov chains, and fractal analysis elucidate the interconnectedness of shape, function, and temporal change in various dimensions. The findings indicate that the layout of Lower Manhattan possesses a complex, robust, and well-structured network topology. We observed correlations between spatial integration indices and economic activity patterns; that is, the grid is an essential component of the economic functionality. The proposed model is both predictive and quantitative, which activates the comprehension of urban complexity. The systematic relationship elucidates the connection among geographical form, economic function, and susceptibility to potential threats. This framework offers a model for urban planners and designers to enhance connectivity, pinpoint structural deficiencies, and devise solutions that promote sustainable, resilient, and economically viable urbanism.
The effects of quantum mechanics dominate nanoscale devices, where Moore’s law no longer holds true. Additionally, with the recent rapid development of quantum computers, the development of reversible gates to overcome the problems of energy and information loss and the nano-level quantum-dot cellular automata (QCA) technology to efficiently implement them are in the spotlight. In this study, a full adder-subtractor, a core operation of the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the most important hardware device in computer operations, is implemented as a circuit capable of reversible operation using QCA-based reversible gates. The proposed circuit consists of one reversible QCA gate and two Feynman gates and is designed as a multi-layer structure for efficient use of area and minimization of delay. The proposed circuit is tested on QCADesigner 2.0.3 and QCADesigner-E 2.2 and shows the best performance and lowest energy dissipation. In particular, it shows tremendous improvement rates of 180% and 562% in two representative standard design cost indicators compared to the best existing studies, and also shows the highest circuit average output polarization.
Alessandra Cecilia Jacomuzzi, Laura Emma Milani Marin
The COVID-19 pandemic launched a challenge on the education system and required schools to make organizational changes in order to continue serving the local community. Essential to this process are support teachers who play a key role as agents of change. Despite their role, the perspectives, desires, and needs of these teachers have since been neglected, despite their centrality in contemporary Italy. Accordingly, the specific aim of this study revolves around supporting teachers’ experiences with digital technologies (i.e., learning applications, telecommunication media, and interactive devices) within a pandemic context, especially technologies used to maintain the educational bond with students with disabilities. Attuned to an interpretative paradigm, this qualitative research has an ethnographic design, which was implemented in a secondary school in a Northern Italian city. Throughout the article, we discuss the three main drawbacks found in fieldwork: (i) the prevailing change in bureaucratic management; (ii) the pervading mind–body binarism in teaching; and (iii) a long-term vision for inclusion being subject to a passive logic of adaptation. Finally, we reflect on some emerging implications. The first points to a necessary move from a rationalistic school management to an alternative model focused more on guaranteeing social justice among educational stakeholders. The second is that the very introduction of a new technology should be aimed at engaging actors whose work has been invisible to date in a school setting to empower them as key agents for change. The third suggests that, to overcome community disaggregation and mind-body binarism, a teacher-researcher figure is needed, a figure with holistic skills in addition to those of a technical nature delivered by institutional training programs.
Evgenia Psarra, Dimitris Apostolou, Yiannis Verginadis
et al.
Abstract Background As digital healthcare services handle increasingly more sensitive health data, robust access control methods are required. Especially in emergency conditions, where the patient’s health situation is in peril, different healthcare providers associated with critical cases may need to be granted permission to acquire access to Electronic Health Records (EHRs) of patients. The research objective of this work is to develop a proactive access control method that can grant emergency clinicians access to sensitive health data, guaranteeing the integrity and security of the data, and generating trust without the need for a trusted third party. Methods A contextual and blockchain-based mechanism is proposed that allows access to sensitive EHRs by applying prognostic procedures where information based on context, is utilized to identify critical situations and grant access to medical data. Specifically, to enable proactivity, Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) Neural Networks (NNs) are applied that utilize patient’s recent health history to prognose the next two-hour health metrics values. Fuzzy logic is used to evaluate the severity of the patient’s health state. These techniques are incorporated in a private and permissioned Hyperledger-Fabric blockchain network, capable of securing patient’s sensitive information in the blockchain network. Results The developed access control method provides secure access for emergency clinicians to sensitive information and simultaneously safeguards the patient’s well-being. Integrating this predictive mechanism within the blockchain network proved to be a robust tool to enhance the performance of the access control mechanism. Furthermore, the blockchain network of this work can record the history of who and when had access to a specific patient’s sensitive EHRs, guaranteeing the integrity and security of the data, as well as recording the latency of this mechanism, where three different access control cases are evaluated. This access control mechanism is to be enforced in a real-life scenario in hospitals. Conclusions The proposed mechanism informs proactively the emergency team of professional clinicians about patients’ critical situations by combining fuzzy and predictive machine learning techniques incorporated in the private and permissioned blockchain network, and it exploits the distributed data of the blockchain architecture, guaranteeing the integrity and security of the data, and thus, enhancing the users’ trust to the access control mechanism.
Computer applications to medicine. Medical informatics
Abstract In this study, we develop and empirically test a valuation model for a commonly encountered option in office leases: a tenant’s option to renew at future market rent (a fair market value) with lease termination as the maturity date. The model integrates decision analysis with real options analysis and market risk with private risks. “Option value” is defined as the private value of the option to either party pre-contract, while “option price” assumes a fair agreement between transacting parties and can be positive (rental premium paid) or negative (rental discount offered). Without manifest expectations, an analysis of a sample of office leases supports the model’s logic with price estimates in a practical range. The tenants’ option price/value is shown to have a negative relationship with the original/renewal lease term; conversely, the landlords’ option value is positively related to the original/renewal term. Comparative analyses show that transaction costs have a positive effect on tenants’ option value and on prices, while vacancy costs and the vacancy period are both positively related to the landlords’ option value and negatively related to price. Market rent is found to have a negative relationship with option price. Overall, this study provides a theoretical analysis and empirical tests of the value of a real option that allows option holders to renew/extend their contracts at a fair market value.
Introduction:
The relationship between ethics and politics and political ethics is one of the old and very broad concepts in the field of human mental issues. However, in the new era and with new perspectives, its rereading has gained double importance. Today, political ethics is in complete correspondence with related concepts such as religion, spirituality, government, secularism and other concepts and forms one of the challenges in the field of understanding politics.
Al-Farabi (870-950 A.H.) has occupied a very high and irreplaceable place in the history of Islamic philosophy. Farabi's coverage of various sciences in the realm of the Islamic world is amazing. The depth of thinking and the breadth of Farabi's intellectual horizon in terms of philosophy, especially political philosophy, is exemplary and rare. He is a creative and innovative philosopher and offers new and profound products to the world and scholars of thought, including in ethics, politics and their relationship. Based on this, the hypothesis of the article is that the practical manifestation and intersection of the relationship between ethics and politics in Farabi's political philosophy should be found in some hybrid concepts. On this basis, why and how the relationship between ethics and politics is one of the problems and theoretical and practical issues of political science and ethics science, which various approaches and different viewpoints have been used to celebrate it. One of the most important efforts is related to the prominent Muslim political philosopher Abu Nasr Farabi. The hypothesis of the article seeks to answer the question of Farabi's approach to the relationship between ethics and politics based on the theoretical framework that the concepts of utopia, happiness, government legitimacy, justice and citizenship rights are the manifestation and operational intersection of the relationship between ethics and politics in Farabi's political philosophy.
Method:Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of the article is a combination of three questions and four approaches. which the article measures and clarifies Farabi's point of view towards them:
1: Three questions: The relationship between ethics and politics can be questioned in three ways. (Kechoyan 1382: 14). The first direction is whether politics, as a public sphere of human life, can basically pursue moral goals in the private sphere? The second question is whether the field of politics, ethics, or in more general terms, has its own prescriptive requirements in distinction from ethics and individual prescriptions or not? The third question refers to the field of tools and methods or the way of pursuing and applying the policies and goals of the public domain (ibid. 15). Do we necessarily have to use ethical methods in politics, or is the way of achieving and pursuing goals in politics independent of moral judgments (ibid., 15).
Four theories: On another level, the relationship between ethics and politics can be gathered and analyzed in four theories. Theories of separation of ethics from politics, compliance of ethics with politics, two-level ethics and the unity of ethics and politics (Islami 2013: 26). The fourth theory is the unity of ethics and politics (Islami 2013: 26). According to this theory, ethics is individual politics and politics is collective ethics. Ethics and politics are both branches of practical wisdom and seek to ensure human happiness.
Discussion:
Farabi has divided civil science into two theoretical and practical parts. He considers ethics as a theoretical part and politics as a practical part. In Farabi's commentary, Ibn Rushd clearly spoke about the separation of the two sciences. But Farabi himself did not try to separate the theoretical aspect from the practical aspect. The relationship between ethics and politics was considered from several angles. From one point of view, several questions were raised to which Farabi's answer should be received. The first question was whether politics, as a public sphere of human life, should pursue moral goals in the private sphere or not? Farabi's answer to this question is positive. Unlike today's political philosophy in the West, they do not believe in the separation of public and private spheres and consider them to be the same. Therefore, it should be said that according to him, ethics and politics are a science that has a single subject and goal. According to him, the goal of ethics and politics is happiness.
The second question was whether politics, as a public sphere, morally creates a sphere independent of the private sphere with its own special logic or not? According to Farabi, the individual moral sphere is not separate from the social moral sphere, and the principles governing them and the goals and objectives of both are common. The complexity of social issues is more than individual issues, but this cannot create a distinct morality.
Another question was whether ethical methods must be used in politics or whether having ethical goals is enough and whether a politician should act ethically. From Farabi's point of view, the science of ethics is not limited to individual moral reform, but also includes social reform, and the duty of the ruler and government in the society is to develop moral values, which must necessarily be attributed to it. On this basis, from Farabi's point of view, the theories of separation of ethics from politics, subordination of ethics to politics, are completely rejected; Two-level ethics is also not acceptable and the principles governing both the fields of ethics and politics are the same. Therefore, he believes in the unity and similarity of ethics and politics, in the sense of subordination of politics to ethics (in the sense of consistent moral standards).
Farabi considers the necessity of community to be certain, but what does he consider its origin? Is it natural, natural, voluntary or rational or instinctive? Farabi, except for the first point of view, which considered social life not natural but caused by external emergency. It accepts the rest of the approaches. But in general, he has an instrumental attitude towards society and considers it a means to achieve perfection and happiness.
Farabi introduces will as having three branches. The first branch of passion comes from feeling. The second category of excitement is caused by imagination. The third branch of passion comes from speech and thinking, which Farabi calls this kind of free will. Like Aristotle, Farabi believes that moderation is a virtue.
Conclusion:
Farabi is a creative and innovative philosopher and offers new and profound products to scholars and scholars of thought, including ethics, politics and their relationship, which is one of the ancient and very broad concepts. The article measures Farabi's view on the relationship between ethics and politics (issue) based on the theoretical framework of the article, which is a combination of three questions and four approaches: the separation of ethics from politics, the subordination of ethics to politics, two-level ethics, and the unity of ethics and politics (method). The hypothesis of the article, which is the second innovation of the article compared to homogeneous articles, considers some concepts such as utopia, happiness, government legitimacy, justice and citizenship rights as the manifestation and operational intersection of the relationship between ethics and politics in Farabi's political philosophy. (innovation) Based on this, Farabi considers the goal of ethics and politics to be the same; Ethics has a political nature and politics has a moral nature. The theories of the separation of ethics from politics, the subordination of ethics to politics, have been completely ruled out; Two-level ethics is also not acceptable and the principles governing both the fields of ethics and politics are the same. Therefore, he believes in the unity and similarity of ethics and politics in the sense of following politics from ethics (in the sense of compatible ethical standards). (Findings) According to this, Farabi is a philosopher who does not find force and domination, conquest and the sword as a way to build an ethical culture. It considers happiness both in terms of belief and in relation to society. The government is morally based on public opinion and will. He based his utopia on voluntary justice based on virtue and rejects natural justice, and in his opinion, all citizens have rights and have a fair share in society. (Result)
The fault detection system using automated concepts is a crucial aspect of the industrial process. The automated system can contribute efficiently in minimizing equipment downtime therefore improving the production process cost. This paper highlights a novel model based fault detection (FD) approach combined with an interval type-2 (IT2) Takagi–Sugeno (T–S) fuzzy system for fault detection in the drilling process. The system uncertainty is considered prevailing during the process, and type-2 fuzzy methodology is utilized to deal with these uncertainties in an effective way. Two theorems are developed; Theorem 1, which proves the stability of the fuzzy modeling, and Theorem 2, which establishes the fault detector algorithm stability. A Lyapunov stabilty analysis is implemented for validating the stability criterion for Theorem 1 and Theorem 2. In order to validate the effective implementation of the complex theoretical approach, a numerical analysis is carried out at the end. The proposed methodology can be implemented in real time to detect faults in the drilling tool maintaining the stability of the proposed fault detection estimator. This is critical for increasing the productivity and quality of the machining process, and it also helps improve the surface finish of the work piece satisfying the customer needs and expectations.
María Victoria Martínez-López, Gonzalo Díaz-Cobacho, Belén Liedo
et al.
Altruism and solidarity are concepts that are closely related to organ donation for transplantation. On the one hand, they are typically used for encouraging people to donate. On the other hand, they also underpin the regulations in force in each country to different extents. They are often used indistinctly and equivocally, despite the different ethical implications of each concept. This paper aims to clarify to what extent we can speak of altruism and solidarity in the predominant models of organ donation. It also raises the ethical question of whether these categories are adequate as a basis for such models, bearing in mind that organs are a scarce resource and that a shortage of them may mean that fewer lives are saved or improved.
The authors deliberate that the EU’s soft power leadership has been inadequate during certain periods of the pandemic, being additionally challenged by proactive campaigns of other international actors. According to the authors, such EU underperformance primarily lies in the damaging fact that the Union perceives and treats aspects like the inoculation process not solely as a health-humanitarian issue, but also as a geostrategic activity. The authors consider that EU logic has been largely shaped by the pre-existing geopolitical distaste for China and Russia, and hence also their subsequent COVID-19-related engagement in Europe. Apart from strategic rivalries, EU international status has been exacerbated by deteriorating relations with the UK. According to the authors, the aforementioned international actors have been applying various soft power instruments during the mass inoculation process against COVID-19 in Europe, which also resulted in consequences that are usually attributed to hard power. Antagonisms between the abovementioned stakeholders manifest in unfavorable phenomena such as “vaccine nationalism” and “jab geopolitics”. The authors argues that a less selective, and more flexible and pragmatic approach would have been more beneficial both for public health and the EU’s impaired reputation in certain parts of CEE.
International relations, Law in general. Comparative and uniform law. Jurisprudence
This paper studies the historical relationship between education and society based on a problematic element - inclusion. The commemoration of independence in American countries is addressed to show that different forms of educational inclusion seen today must be analyzed from the perspective of the form of power that made them possible and necessary for the last two hundred years, that is, the liberal power. The concepts of biopolitics and governance are used theoretically and methodologically. It is showed that educational inclusion is not an altruistic contingency of power but a condition of possibility of its constant validity. Additionally, its inherent obligation to impose exclusion and promote inclusion is part of the current logic according to which ruling also entails letting others live and facilitating death for them.
Abhinav Parihar, Nikhil Shukla, Matthew Jerry
et al.
Abstract While Boolean logic has been the backbone of digital information processing, there exist classes of computationally hard problems wherein this paradigm is fundamentally inefficient. Vertex coloring of graphs, belonging to the class of combinatorial optimization, represents one such problem. It is well studied for its applications in data sciences, life sciences, social sciences and technology, and hence, motivates alternate, more efficient non-Boolean pathways towards its solution. Here we demonstrate a coupled relaxation oscillator based dynamical system that exploits insulator-metal transition in Vanadium Dioxide (VO2) to efficiently solve vertex coloring of graphs. Pairwise coupled VO2 oscillator circuits have been analyzed before for basic computing operations, but using complex networks of VO2 oscillators, or any other oscillators, for more complex tasks have been challenging in theory as well as in experiments. The proposed VO2 oscillator network harnesses the natural analogue between optimization problems and energy minimization processes in highly parallel, interconnected dynamical systems to approximate optimal coloring of graphs. We further indicate a fundamental connection between spectral properties of linear dynamical systems and spectral algorithms for graph coloring. Our work not only elucidates a physics-based computing approach but also presents tantalizing opportunities for building customized analog co-processors for solving hard problems efficiently.
Introduction. The main objective of the professional standard, systematizing the work function of a teacher, is to describe not personal qualities of teachers but the process and outcome of their activities. The logic of the development of the professional standard involves the analysis of teaching activities and evaluation of its results, which should possess the properties of measurability and diagnosability.The aim of the present publication is to identify praxiological foundations of the professional standard of the teacher via a comparative analysis of the requirements and fundamental concepts of praxeology – a General theory of successful activities developed by domestic and foreign authors and reflected in monographic and dissertation researches.Methodology and methods of research. Methodological basis of research is the ideas of system, activity and praxiological approaches.Results. The authors prove that pedagogical praxeology as the science and practice of effective organization of pedagogical activity is a new mechanism to describe the characteristics of pedagogical activity and formation of complex of professional portrait of the teacher. Pedagogical praxeology as the mechanism: establishes the framework of competences of the teacher; defines the requirements for structured content, conditions and quality of work of the teacher, their qualifications and competences in the field of professional activity; provides the necessary compliance awareness of teacher’s requirements; describes methods of assessing the development of competencies of teachers; promotes the involvement of the teacher in the task of improving the quality of education; serves as the basis for constructing a continuous trajectory of increasing level of professional training of each teacher.Scientific novelty. The content of professional standards from the standpoint of the praxiological approach is investigated; conceptual ideas of praxeology, defining role and position of praxiocentralism in the professional standard are highlighted; criteria and indicators of an estimation of labour activity of the teacher from the point of view of its efficiency and effectiveness are given.Practical significance. This study contributes to the solution of theoretical and practical problems of correlation existing Federal educational state standards (FESS) and professional standards. This is especially important due to the possibility of subsequent approval and implementation into the pedagogical practices of the next generation of FESS developed on the basis of professional standards.
Purpose: A fundamental salubrious feature of western liberal democratic system of government is political parties which compete for power. Parties in western liberal democracies are crucial in that the political systems are divided into different bipartisan, single-party, and multiparty categories according to criteria as number of parties, role and special functions, and interactions among parties. The sheer diversity of the parties and ideological rift, which are closely related, indicates the health and vitality of the democratic system. With this in mind, it is argued that political behavior and competition in elections are interpreted in a framework informed by a single most important entity, i.e., political party. In the third millennium, with party system and political success and stability of states tightly associated, a question looming around relates the new mechanizations of democracy and party system. This is the major focus of the present article. Design/Methodology/Approach: To achieve the major focus of the present article which is an attempt to provide some answers to the above questions through bringing into the light issues as democracy and party system, the place and role of parties in legislative process in western democracies, power transition between parties, and typology of political parties, in a qualitative undertaking. Findings: In West, political parties are formed due to democratization and liberalization processes of the societies; and formation of party system is an essential stage in political development trend. It is believed that in liberal-democratic systems, political pluralism is abridged in political partisanship and peaceful competition among parties for gaining power. If, nowadays partisanship is an inseparable element of western political life, however it has not completely responded towards requirements and could be problem in democracy, their presence could be also considered as a barrier against political pluralism; because today, political pluralism is limited to competition of certain state parties which are not able to provide real democracy due to burdening their political will on national and nation’s will. Actually, state parties foreclose equality of opportunities and parity of facilities and accordingly, chance of any kind of power from other political groups and biases and thus prevent continues and real flow of power by concentrating power in their own hands. If partisanship has been dual of liberal-democratic system at first, however, according to enhancement of role and power of political parties and their internalization, democracy or ruling of people on people is gradually replaced by ruling of parties. Originality/Value: The main logic of the present research is laid on the hypothesis that “increasing governmental political parties” and “partisanship of western governments” has caused the establishment of “partitocratic state (party oriented state)” and challenging “democracy” by “partitocracy”. In present era, individual and plural thoughts are replaced by party reasoning; and national and public will is turned to party will. Therefore, today, national politics and policy of the nation are prescribed by political parties which are turned to part of governments, and those governments which are abridged in political parties. This process is called as foundation of “partitocratic state (party oriented state)” in western communities.
Political institutions and public administration (General), Political institutions and public administration - Asia (Asian studies only)
In this article, the objective was to present effective and optimal strategies aimed at improving the Swallow Swarm Optimization (SSO) method. The SSO is one of the best optimization methods based on swarm intelligence which is inspired by the intelligent behaviors of swallows. It has been able to offer a relatively strong method for solving optimization problems. However, despite its many advantages, the SSO suffers from two shortcomings. Firstly, particles movement speed is not controlled satisfactorily during the search due to the lack of an inertia weight. Secondly, the variables of the acceleration coefficient are not able to strike a balance between the local and the global searches because they are not sufficiently flexible in complex environments. Therefore, the SSO algorithm does not provide adequate results when it searches in functions such as the Step or Quadric function. Hence, the fuzzy adaptive Swallow Swarm Optimization (FASSO) method was introduced to deal with these problems. Meanwhile, results enjoy high accuracy which are obtained by using an adaptive inertia weight and through combining two fuzzy logic systems to accurately calculate the acceleration coefficients. High speed of convergence, avoidance from falling into local extremum, and high level of error tolerance are the advantages of proposed method. The FASSO was compared with eleven of the best PSO methods and SSO in 18 benchmark functions. Finally, significant results were obtained.
Probabilistic automata (PAs) have been successfully applied in formal
verification of concurrent and stochastic systems. Efficient model checking
algorithms have been studied, where the most often used logics for expressing
properties are based on probabilistic computation tree logic (PCTL) and its
extension PCTL^*. Various behavioral equivalences are proposed, as a powerful
tool for abstraction and compositional minimization for PAs. Unfortunately, the
equivalences are well-known to be sound, but not complete with respect to the
logical equivalences induced by PCTL or PCTL*. The desire of a both sound and
complete behavioral equivalence has been pointed out by Segala in 1995, but
remains open throughout the years. In this paper we introduce novel notions of
strong bisimulation relations, which characterize PCTL and PCTL* exactly. We
extend weak bisimulations that characterize PCTL and PCTL* without next
operator, respectively. Further, we also extend the framework to simulation
preorders. Thus, our paper bridges the gap between logical and behavioral
equivalences and preorders in this setting.
The idea of interpreting quantifiers in terms of a game between two players was first suggested at the end of the 19th century by one of the inventors of quantification theory, C. S. Peirce, but it laid buried in his papers until it was discovered in the 1980s. His idea was independently discovered in the 1950s, when Leon Henkin suggested a game semantics for infinitary languages. Paul Lorenzen introduced his Dialogspiele at the same time, while his student Kuno Lorenz introduced the vocabulary of game theory that led to our modern conception of game semantics shortly after. The idea is to provide an explanation of the meaning of the logical connectives and quantifiers in terms of rules for non-collaborative, zero-sum games between two agents, one of whom argues for the validity of the claim against moves from the other, and to define truth in terms of the existence of a winning strategy for the defender.