Hasil untuk "Law of Europe"

James H. Tully

Klemen Drnovšek, Nataša Samec Berghaus

This article investigates how the principle of contractual justice - an unwritten yet fundamental source of private law - continues to operate in an era shaped by artificial intelligence (AI). Although pacta sunt servanda remains the cornerstone of contractual certainty, the doctrine of rebus sic stantibus functions as a corrective when radically changed circumstances would make strict performance inequitable. Recognised across all developed legal orders and recently codified in many, the authors analyse the doctrine in more than twenty European jurisdictions, with attention to convergences and doctrinal divergences. The study then turns to smart-contract technology and AI-driven automation, asking whether code-based execution can accommodate contractual justice or instead amplifies contractual rigidity. The authors conclude that automated decision-making can handle only quantifiable adjustments, whereas genuine fairness still requires case-sensitive judicial discretion grounded in unwritten principles. Even - and especially - in the age of AI, therefore, courts - and the normative resources of good faith, fairness and equity - remain indispensable safeguards of contractual balance.

Anna Tomza

Artykuł stanowi historycznoprawną analizę ewolucji instytucji impeachmentu sędziowskiego (judicial impeachment) w amerykańskim porządku konstytucyjnym, z naciskiem na jego brytyjskie korzenie i współczesne dylematy interpretacyjne. Mimo wyraźnej niechęci ojców założycieli do instytucjonalnego dziedzictwa Korony Brytyjskiej mechanizm impeachmentu został włączony do Konstytucji USA jako środek kontroli nad urzędnikami publicznymi, w tym sędziami federalnymi. Główne zabezpieczenia przed arbitralnością, wywodzące się z obaw przed angielskim scire facias – procedurą umożliwiającą monarsze usunięcie urzędnika na podstawie domniemania „złego zachowania” (misbehavior), z przeniesieniem ciężaru dowodu na oskarżonego – obejmują precyzyjne klauzule: Good Behavior gwarantująca sprawowanie urzędu „podczas dobrego sprawowania” oraz High Crimes and Misdemeanors. Główny problem badawczy dotyczy przełomu paradygmatu interpretacyjnego zapoczątkowanego 15 kwietnia 1970 r. przez kongresmena Geralda R. Forda, który we wniosku przeciwko sędziemu Sądu Najwyższego Williamowi O. Douglasowi postulował usunięcie sędziego na podstawie naruszenia klauzuli Good Behavior, niezależnie od popełnienia czynu karalnego. Ta zmiana podważyła tradycyjne ujęcie impeachmentu jako procedury naprawczej o charakterze polityczno-karnym, otwierając debatę nad alternatywną, behawioralną metodą kontroli sędziów. Analiza wykazuje, że niejednoznaczność normatywna brytyjskich pojęć good behaviour i tenure ma doniosły wpływ na współczesną debatę konstytucyjną o możliwościach usuwania sędziów z urzędu.

E. T. Achiume

András Bencsik

Ensuring a broad degree of financial autonomy is a fundamental issue for local government. In the context of the administrative modernization of recent years, several legislative measures have been taken which have directly or indirectly limited the financial and economic autonomy of local governments in Hungary. The paper gives a brief overview of the development of the Hungarian local government system in 1990, comparing the initial regulation with the standards of the European Charter of Local Self-Government. It discusses, then, the restructuring of the system in 2011, and lists the legal institutions which, in the author’s view, have led to restrictions on local government management. The paper covers the introduction of the task-financing system, the establishment of district offices, the restructuring of the role of county governments, and the constitutional and other legal obstacles to municipal borrowing.

Jens Kahrmann, Georg Leggewie

(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2024 9(1), 21-38 | European Forum Insight of 15 April 2024 | (Table of Contents) I. Introduction. - II. Context. - III. The draft regulation in detail. - III.1 Category 1 NGT plants. - III.2 Category 2 NGT plants. - III.3. Provisions for delegated and implementing acts as well as guidance material. - IV. Assessment of different scientific aspects in the regulation. - IV.1. Scientific reasoning of equivalence criteria as given in Annex I. - IV.2. Scientific reasoning of risk assessment criteria as given in Annex II. - V. Assessment of different legal aspects in the draft regulation. - V.1. Deliberate releases of cat 1 plants and committee procedure. - V.2 Precautionary principle. - V.3. Cartagena protocol. - v.4. Amendment of Annex I via delegated act. - VI. Ongoing discussion | (Abstract) This Insight explains in detail, yet easily understandable, the contents of the European Commission’s draft regulation on plants obtained by certain new genomic techniques and their food and feed. It critically comments on the underlying scientific considerations and discusses potential legal issues – the precautionary principle being one of them, though arguably not the most important one. Finally, the Insight summarizes the ongoing discussions and developments regarding the draft regulation. The Authors also hint at potential amendments, which might resolve some of the remaining problems.

Martin Löhnig

The bankruptcy proceedings codified in the Bavarian Code of Civil Procedure immediately before the founding of the German Empire after long scientific and political discussion (Gant) competed as the most up-to-date regulation of the bankruptcy proceedings in a German individual state with the regulatory concepts of the Prussian Bankruptcy Code of 1855, which was significantly influenced by French law, for influence on the Reich Bankruptcy Code of 1877. It is therefore necessary to examine what impetus the Bavarian law was able to provide, which will be done using the example of the problem of selecting the bankruptcy trustee which is a crucial question in bankruptcy proceedings.

Laura Fotopulosová

The international scientific conference Bratislava Legal Forum 2024 took place from 17 to 19 September 2024, traditionally held at the Faculty of Law of Comenius University Bratislava. The 10th anniversary edition was opened on Tuesday, 17 September 2024, with the plenary session of the conference with the central theme: "The Impact of the European Law on the National Law". Eminent guests such as Ministers of Justice from the V4 countries, Presidents of the Supreme Courts from the V4 countries and Presidents of the Bar Associations from the V4 countries were invited to the plenary session. The event was organised thanks to the support of the International Visegrad Fund (IVF) and the Central European Foundation (CEF). 

Emanuel Kulczycki, Tim C. E. Engels, Janne Pölönen et al.

This study investigates patterns in the language and type of social sciences and humanities (SSH) publications in non-English speaking European countries to demonstrate that such patterns are related not only to discipline but also to each country’s cultural and historic heritage. We investigate publication patterns that occur across SSH publications of the whole of the SSH and of economics and business, law, and philosophy and theology publications in the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Flanders (Belgium), Norway, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. We use data from 74,022 peer-reviewed publications from 2014 registered in at least one of the eight countries’ national databases and for 272,376 peer-reviewed publications from the period of 2011–2014 registered in at least one of the seven countries’ national databases (for all countries except Slovakia). Our findings show that publication patterns differ both between fields (e.g. patterns in law differ from those in economics and business in the same way in Flanders and Finland) and within fields (e.g. patterns in law in the Czech Republic differ from patterns in law in Finland). We observe that the publication patterns are stable and quite similar in West European and Nordic countries, whereas in Central and Eastern European countries the publication patterns demonstrate considerable changes. Nevertheless, in all countries, the share of articles and the share of publications in English is on the rise. We conclude with recommendations for science policy and highlight that internationalization policies in non-English speaking countries should consider various starting points and cultural heritages in different countries.

Marco Scotti, Marco Scotti, Silvia Opitz et al.

Legal requirement in Europe asks for Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) in European seas, including consideration of trophic interactions and minimization of negative impacts of fishing on food webs and ecosystem functioning. This study presents the first mass-balanced ecosystem model focused on the western Baltic Sea (WBS). Results show that heavy fishing pressure exerted on the WBS has forced top predators such as harbour porpoise and cod to cover their dietary needs by shifting from forage fish to other prey or find food outside of the model area. The model was then developed to explore the dynamics of four future fishery scenarios: (1) business as usual (BAU), (2) maximum sustainable fishing (F = FMSY), (3) half of FMSY, and (4) EBFM with F = 0.5 FMSY for forage fish and F = 0.8 FMSY for other fish. Simulations show that BAU would perpetuate low catches from depleted stocks with a high risk of extinction for harbour porpoise. In contrast, the EBFM scenario would allow the recovery of harbour porpoise, forage fish and cod with increases in catch of herring and cod. EBFM promotes ecosystem resilience to eutrophication and ocean warming, and through the rebuilding of commercial stocks increases by more than three times carbon sequestration compared to BAU. The model provides an interrelated assessment of trophic guilds in the WBS, as required by European law to assess whether European seas are in good environmental status.

Francisco Zúñiga Urbina , Felipe Peroti Díaz

Este artículo aborda sucintamente una evolución del derecho de propiedad y de los bienes públicos en las constituciones de Chile, así como el surgimiento de la función social. Además, aborda los tipos de bienes privados y públicos, tipos de propiedad y los términos teórico-prácticos de esta cuestión. Por otra parte, este trabajo define el dominio público, sus características y el régimen de permisos y concesiones que permite la explotación privada de los bienes públicos. Finalmente se enfoca la cuestión prospectivamente en el marco del debate constituyente en torno a la nueva Constitución que Chile aprobará en el año 2022. Para los autores, el poder constituyente originario desatado en noviembre de 2019 permite un amplio abanico de reconfiguración del derecho de propiedad y de los bienes públicos; subordinando la propiedad y los bienes privados al interés general de la nación.

Dariusz Makiłła

Przedmiotem artykułu jest wewnętrzna działalność ustawodawcza księcia Albrechta von Brandenburg-Ansbach, który objął rządy w księstwie pruskim utworzonym po sekularyzacji pruskiej części Zakonu krzyżackiego jako lenno króla i Korony Polskiej (1525). W czasie swoich rządów książę podejmował działania mające na celu umocnienie swojej pozycji. Służyła temu również działalność prawodawcza, uzgadniana często ze stanami księstwa, w której znaczącą rolę odgrywały ustanawiane przez księcia przepisy porządkowe, wydawane samoistnie, ale często pojawiające się w ramach szerszych ustaw porządkowych obejmujących regulacje karne, prawno-osobowe czy prawno-majątkowe. Ich zadaniem było normowanie wielu stron życia i działalności poddanych, nakazywanie, zakazywanie określonych zachowań, reglamentowanie i represjonowanie ich postępowania. Wydawanie przez władców przepisów policyjnych służyć miało w procesie kształtowania się wczesnonowożytnego władztwa terytorialnego wprowadzeniu kontroli nad poddanymi, wprzęgnięciu ich w system dyscypliny społecznej, mającej na celu osiągnięcie porządku wewnętrznego. Działalność ta, w której przepisy policyjne pełniły funkcję instrumentu utrwalenia władzy, miała w przypadku księcia Albrechta dodatkowe znaczenie ze względu na ustanowienie w księstwie pruskim ewangelickiego kościoła krajowego, na którego czele, jako jego głowa, stał sam książę. Zespolenie władzy świeckiej z kościelną, zgodne z doktryną Marcina Lutra, zmierzało do powstanie społeczności, w której poddani książęcy byli jednocześnie członkami książęcego kościoła. Z tego powodu wiele z przepisów policyjnych miało szczególny moralny charakter.

H. Houthakker

Christina Eckes

(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2020 5(1), 319-329 | Insight | (Table of Contents) I. Introduction. - II. Jurisdictional sovereignty: a core element of an elusive concept. - III. EU autonomy as construed by the Court of Justice. - IV. Jurisdictional sovereignty of the EU as a legal construction. - V. Concluding reflections on the Court's autonomy conception in context. | (Abstract) Despite all rhetorical references to European sovereignty, the EU cannot make a convincing claim to sovereignty under international law. International law does not vest non-state actors with sovereignty. What the EU can do and what it also does is that it acts as if it was a sovereign entity and claims certain rights that are considered core elements of State sovereignty. This paper sheds light on the meaning of the notion of sovereignty in the specific context of the EU's external legal relations. It argues that the Court of Justice's conception of the autonomy of the EU legal order provides the EU de facto with a core element of State sovereignty, namely a form of (negative) jurisdictional sovereignty that otherwise only States can claim. Under international law, a State's exclusive right to decide what acts shall be given effect on its territory is virtually undisputed. It is the core of the external aspect of negative sovereignty and functions as an independent, overriding justification to keep external influences out. The Court's autonomy conception serves the same purpose. The Court's broad conception of external influences that could threaten the EU's autonomy has in the past jeopardized international cooperation plans of the political institutions of the EU. Yet, shutting out external interference is also a necessary precondition for positive sovereignty, i.e. the ability to determine one's own course of action as a polity, as well as democratic legitimacy.

Anne Eriksen

Can grain crops be increased? The issue was heatedly debated in 18th century Denmark-Norway, both for patriotic and economic reasons. The historian Gerhard Schøning (1722-80) answered affirmatively. Chopping down much of the forests that covered Norway would change the climate radically for the better. As a consequence of the warmer weather, the fertility of the soil would improve. Crops would increase, and new and even more delicate types of plants could be introduced. Schøning's argument was nearly entirely built on examples from Greek and Roman history, cited to demonstrate that since classical times, this kind of changes had already taken place in other parts of Europe. Climate interested a number of 18th century writers. It was not only a part of geotheory, but also included in theories about the history of society, law and culture as well as in medical thought. Ideas about a human-made climate change similar to Schøning's can be found in texts by e.g. Hume and Buffon. The argument relied on a quantity of examples, as well as on the uncontested exemplarity of classical literature itself. Schøning's examples represent both series and ideals. The cases he cites are numerous (serial) instantiations of the same general mechanism: The effect of human interventions in nature. Yet at the same time they are models to follow, even if it will take some effort. Norway will never be as warm and fertile as southern countries, but Schøning exhorts his compatriots to "take courage and start!" History consisted of examples to learn from and models to follow.

Maria Lewandowicz

The Code of Private Law in the Canton of Zurich (Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch für den Kanton Zürich – PGB) is described as the perfect model for the Swiss Civil Code in the literature devoted to the subject matter of codification of private law in the Swiss Confederation. It was the first modern civil code in Switzerland which was imbued with German tradition and legal culture. At the same time, it represented a high level of scientific sophistication. The Code of Private Law in the Canton of Zurich proved the vitality of German law in Switzerland. Moreover, its stable foundations in the national spirit resulted in a high level of social acceptance for the legal solutions included within. However, the question remains to what extent one can determine the influence of the Code of Private Law in the Canton of Zurich on the project and on the final shape of the Swiss Civil Code (ZGB). Also the question is to what extent one should treat these codes as independent works, even though they were created on the basis of the same initial assumptions. The influence of The Code of Private Law in the Canton of Zurich on the Swiss Civil Code most completely depicts the inheritance law. Firstly, it directly interferes with the personal sphere of a citizen’s life and, consequently, it has to be rooted in the national culture and tradition in order to be effective. Secondly, it is the part of law which was the most diversified regulatory area in Switzerland in the period prior to the unification. The description of the Code of Private Law in the Canton of Zurich as “the perfect model” for the Swiss Civil Code is accurate. However, it is the author’s opinion that this statement is an exaggeration. The basic connection between the Code of Private Law in the Canton of Zurich and the Swiss Civil Code is expressed in the method of conducting the preparatory work for the codification work. It is also expressed by the adopted method of selection of the source material which was to serve as demonstrative material in the unification work. However, there is no evidence which would attest that the Swiss Civil Code’s contents were based on the regulations found in the Code of Private Law in the Canton of Zurich. The close relationship of both laws is expressed not in the contents but rather in the ideological assumptions of the conducted codification works.

T. V. Smith

S. Gass

Sadowski Mirosław Michał

M. Ruffert

Economic governance in the EU has been undergoing substantial changes since the beginning of the sovereign debt crisis. The re-arrangements are affecting the convergence of European economies, budgetary control and emergency reactions. Some of them are still at proposal stage, such as the "sixpack" proposed by the Commission for a series of legislative measures on convergence and budgetary surveillance, which is still under scrutiny in Parliament and which is accompanied by activity of the European Council (Euro-Plus-Pact, European Semester). Emergency action is being undertaken since May 2010 (Greek package, EFSM, EFSF) and should lead to a newly inserted provision in the TFEU together with a new international financial institution (ESM). From a European constitutional lawyer's view, the soundness of the reforms already at proposal stage, as well as the emergency activity currently undertaken, may be called into question. European constitutionalism is at stake, as core rules of the Treaties are disrespected. Democratic governance is threatened, as most of the new structures are devoid of parliamentary backing. Stability and welfare are jeopardized as the policy of the Union deviates from successful ways of economic governance as enshrined in the Treaties. European legal scholarship must not be reluctant in pointing at such deficiencies and should participate in showing ways out of the crisis.