Hasil untuk "Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages"

Irena Yanushevskaya, Daniel Bunčić

Russian (ISO 639-3 rus) is an Indo-European East Slavic language spoken by about 162 million people as their first language and about another 110 million as their second language (Lewis, Simons & Fennig 2013), mainly in the Russian Federation (where it is the native language of about 80% of the population, see Berger 1998, Federal’naja služba gosudarstvennoj statistiki (Federal State Statistics Service) 2012: 228–232) and in the other former republics of the USSR (among which it is co-official in Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan). Large groups of Russian speakers (so-called heritage speakers) also live in Europe (especially Germany: almost 3 million or 3.5% of the population, Brehmer 2007: 166–167), Israel (about 1 million or 20%, Glöckner 2008) and the United States (850,000 or 0.3%, Shin & Kominski 2010: 6).

Shuvendu K. Lahiri

Verification-aware programming languages such as Dafny and F* provide means to formally specify and prove properties of a program. Although the problem of checking an implementation against a specification can be defined mechanically, there is no algorithmic way of ensuring the correctness of the {\it user-intent formalization for programs}, expressed as a formal specification. This is because intent or requirement is expressed {\it informally} in natural language and the specification is a formal artefact. Despite, the advent of large language models (LLMs) has made tremendous strides bridging the gap between informal intent and formal program implementations recently, driven in large parts by benchmarks and automated metrics for evaluation. Recent work has proposed a framework for evaluating the {\it user-intent formalization} problem for mainstream programming languages~\cite{endres-fse24}. However, such an approach does not readily extend to verification-aware languages that support rich specifications (using quantifiers and ghost variables) that cannot be evaluated through dynamic execution. Previous work also required generating program mutants using LLMs to create the benchmark. We advocate an alternate, perhaps simpler approach of {\it symbolically testing specifications} to provide an intuitive metric for evaluating the quality of specifications for verification-aware languages. We demonstrate that our automated metric agrees closely on a human-labeled dataset of Dafny specifications for the popular MBPP code-generation benchmark, yet demonstrates cases where the human labeling is not perfect. We also outline formal verification challenges that need to be addressed to apply the technique more widely. We believe our work provides a stepping stone to enable the establishment of a benchmark and research agenda for the problem of user-intent formalization for programs.

Jan Tušil, Jan Obdržálek

Programming language frameworks allow us to generate language tools (e.g., interpreters) just from a formal description of the syntax and semantics of a programming language. As these frameworks tend to be quite complex, an issue arises whether we can trust the generated tools. To address this issue, we introduce a practical formal programming language framework called Minuska, which always generates a provably correct interpreter given a valid language definition. This is achieved by (1) defining a language MinusLang for expressing programming language definitions and giving it formal semantics and (2) using the Coq proof assistant to implement an interpreter parametric in a MinusLang definition and to prove it correct. Minuska provides strong correctness guarantees and can support nontrivial languages while performing well. This is the extended version of the SEFM24 paper of the same name.

Dirk Nowotka, Max Wiedenhöft

Patterns are words with terminals and variables. The language of a pattern is the set of words obtained by uniformly substituting all variables with words that contain only terminals. Regular constraints restrict valid substitutions of variables by associating with each variable a regular language representable by, e.g., finite automata. Pattern languages with regular constraints contain only words in which each variable is substituted according to a set of regular constraints. We consider the membership, inclusion, and equivalence problems for erasing and non-erasing pattern languages with regular constraints. Our main result shows that the erasing equivalence problem, one of the most prominent open problems in the realm of patterns, becomes undecidable if regular constraints are allowed in addition to variable equality.

Haris Agović

Razpravljanje o spolno vključujoči rabi jezika je ustvarilo dva tabora – tiste, ki spolno vključujočo rabo jezika zagovarjajo, in tiste, ki v spolno vključujoči rabi jezika vidijo predvsem ideologiziranje jezika in se jim trenutna jezikovna raba ne zdi izključujoča. V Sloveniji je bila debata najživahnejša leta 2018 po sprejetju sklepa Senata Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani, ki v pravnih aktih fakultete določa rabo ženskega generičnega spola za katerikoli spol. V Nemčiji je debata še zmeraj živahna in poteka v različnih medijih (na televiziji, radiu, v časopisu); v Sloveniji je nekoliko potihnila. V članku so analizirana stališča glede spolno vključujoče rabe jezika v nemškem in slovenskem dnevnem časopisu Delo in Die Welt z namenom poiskati podobnosti in razlike med stališči. Analiza stališč je opravljena na vzorcu 29 člankov, ki so razvrščeni najprej v dve skupni glede na prevladujoče stališče v članku – na negativna in pozitivna stališča. Nadalje so negativna in pozitivna stališča razdeljena v argumentativne sklope, v katere lahko na podlagi vsebinske analize uvrstimo stališča iz analiziranih člankov.

Mojca Smolej

Kyung-Won Baek

This article is devoted to the problem of enantiosemy - one of the most special phenomena in the lexical-semantic aspect of the Russian language. This sphere attracts the interest of many researchers but not yet sufficiently studied and determined by nonsystematic approach of the described object. Research of an enantiosemy as multi-sided and difficult linguistic unit demands studying of a wide range of the questions explaining its contradictory nature. So, the author suggests to approach not only from classic term, so-called enantiosemy (ENS), which means “intra-word antonymy” but also consider the terms of antagonym or contronym, reflecting their asymmetric feature of semantic polarity. The article analyses the category of ENS and the mechanisms of their formation and classifies 3 main types of ENS. Firstly, ENS with superficial negation, secondly, ENS with inversion of diathesis (agent - patient), thirdly, interlingual ENS with panchronic adoption. ENS may be the result of a semantic reconsideration of the word and a revision of connotation in individual word usage such as metonymy and metaphor (one of the typical mechanisms of ENS). Also, linguistic and extralinguistic factors function as mechanism of ENS and reflect the points of view of the participants (agens-patiens) of the communicative situation. ENS is, first of all, multi-temporal in nature, and their opposite meanings, associated with the same root (Proto-Slavic). This semantic syncretism can be traced at different diachronical and synchronical stages of Slavic language development. That’s why ENS is widely represented in colloquial speech, dialects, jargon and conspicuous for two opposite meaning in many Slavic languages. The author comes to a conclusion that the essence of ENS with its semantic ambiguity lies not in the occasional deviation from the norm, but in a realization of effective communicative strategy.

Z. A. Tychinskikh

The dastan “Ildan and Goldan”, the plot of which, according to the author of the article, was not widespread in the Siberian-Tatar folklore is considered in the article. It is noted that, unlike other das-tans, it is not present in the well-known col-lection of Siberian-Tatar folklore by V. V. Radlov. In this connection, the author assumes that this may be a literary work created by a specific author in the dastan genre, such as, for example, “Kalevala”, “Ural Batyr”, etc. The author proves that the plot of the work, based on historical events that took place on the territory of Western Siberia, the geographical names present in the dastan, a large number of words and speech turns characteristic of the Siberian-Tatar language, indicate that the dastan was recorded among the Siberian Tatars or by the author of the work is a native of the Siberian-Tatar environment. It is shown that the key place in the dastan, which tells about the events that took place in the Middle Ages, is given to the history of the Ishim Khanate. Parallels are revealed between the plots described in the dastan and in the Siberian chronicles. It is concluded that the authors of these works could use the same sources.

Antoine Amarilli, Mikaël Monet

We study the task, for a given language $L$, of enumerating the (generally infinite) sequence of its words, without repetitions, while bounding the delay between two consecutive words. To allow for delay bounds that do not depend on the current word length, we assume a model where we produce each word by editing the preceding word with a small edit script, rather than writing out the word from scratch. In particular, this witnesses that the language is orderable, i.e., we can write its words as an infinite sequence such that the Levenshtein edit distance between any two consecutive words is bounded by a value that depends only on the language. For instance, $(a+b)^*$ is orderable (with a variant of the Gray code), but $a^* + b^*$ is not. We characterize which regular languages are enumerable in this sense, and show that this can be decided in PTIME in an input deterministic finite automaton (DFA) for the language. In fact, we show that, given a DFA $A$, we can compute in PTIME automata $A_1, \ldots, A_t$ such that $L(A)$ is partitioned as $L(A_1) \sqcup \ldots \sqcup L(A_t)$ and every $L(A_i)$ is orderable in this sense. Further, we show that the value of $t$ obtained is optimal, i.e., we cannot partition $L(A)$ into less than $t$ orderable languages. In the case where $L(A)$ is orderable (i.e., $t=1$), we show that the ordering can be produced by a bounded-delay algorithm: specifically, the algorithm runs in a suitable pointer machine model, and produces a sequence of bounded-length edit scripts to visit the words of $L(A)$ without repetitions, with bounded delay -- exponential in $|A|$ -- between each script. In fact, we show that we can achieve this while only allowing the edit operations push and pop at the beginning and end of the word, which implies that the word can in fact be maintained in a double-ended queue.

N. M. Solntseva, E. G. Solntseva

The perception of the revolution by the majority of members of the Scythian group (1916—1919) is examined in the article. The relevance of the topic is due to the fact that the views of the Scythians of the 1910s on the revolution correlate with their work, which is actively studied by modern researchers. It is shown that the priority for them was the projection of modernity on the mythologized and poeticized by them historical Scythians, the first was the question of the role of personal energy in opposition to social entropy. The article focuses on the actualization by the group members of the Scythian psychotype in the Russian revolution, on the premonition of their own death in its whirlwind, on the legacy of A. Herzen’s ideas by IvanovRazumnik. The attitude of the group members to the religious content of the revolutions of 1917 is analyzed, the skeptical view of Ivanov-Razumnik, E. Zamyatin, S. Yesenin, N. Klyuev on the Church is presented. The point of view of the spiritual Scythians who dreamed of democracy on the role of the people in the revolution and the future of the country is considered. The apprehensions of M. Prishvin, A. Blok, A. Bely for the fate of a culture threatened with destruction are outlined. It is concluded that there is no single revolutionary axiology in the group and only the relative influence of the ideas of Ivanov-Razumnik on its members.

S. Troebst

This autobiographic (and thus highly subjective) text asks what motived a non-Eastern European, born in 1955 in West Germany, to become a historian of Eastern Europe. The answers are, on the one hand, an interest in (Slavic) languages and (Cold War) politics, and, to a lesser extent, family background, and, on the other, coincidence and the opportunities for fellowship. Part 1 of the article traced the author’s biography from his high-school years to his first modest academic achievements. Part 2 covers his professional path till retirement in 2021 – leading not only to universities like Uppsala, Hamburg, and finally Leipzig, but also into international institutions outside academia, such as the Slavic Unit of the British Military Government of Berlin, the CSCE / OSCE missions of long-duration in Macedonia and Moldova (in particular in the Dnestr region and Gagauzia), and – as founding director – to the Danish-German European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) in Flensburg.

S. Troebst

This autobiographic (and thus highly subjective) text asks what motived a non-East European, born in 1955 in West Germany, to become a historian of Eastern Europe. The answers are, on the one hand, an interest in (Slavic) languages and (Cold War) politics, and, to a lesser extent, family background, and on the other, coincidence and, not the least, fellowship opportunities. Part 1 of the article traces the author’s biography from his high-school years in Baden-Württemberg to universities and research institutions in Tübingen, West Berlin, Sofija, Skopje, and Bloomington, Indiana, from 1969 to 1981 – including his first modest academic achievements. Part 2 covers his professional path till retirement in 2021.

M. M. Alekseeva

The aim of the paper is to present nursery lexicon registered in Alexander Hojsak’s dictionary of the Wysowa village Lemko dialect. Among 3000 words registered in the dictionary there are 50 lexemes marked as “nursery words”. They belong to several semantic groups (names of food, body parts, animals, clothes, things, actions and physical conditions, religious sphere) and demonstrate features proved universal for baby talk in most languages. There is a correspondence between Lemko nursery words for animals and Lemko interjections for calling domestic animals which seems to be relevant for other Ukrainian dialects. Some of the Lemko nursery words show broader distribution: they are registered in other Ukrainian dialects, other Slavic and even non-Slavic languages (for example папу ‘to eat’). The idea of mapping nursery words seems to be worth further study.

Emmanuel Adetiba, Temitope John, Adekunle Akinrinmade et al.

The field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has undoubtedly received significant attention in recent years. AI is being adopted to provide solutions to problems in fields such as medicine, engineering, education, government and several other domains. In order to analyze the state of the art of research in the field of AI, we present a systematic literature review focusing on the Evolution of AI programming languages. We followed the systematic literature review method by searching relevant databases like SCOPUS, IEEE Xplore and Google Scholar. EndNote reference manager was used to catalog the relevant extracted papers. Our search returned a total of 6565 documents, whereof 69 studies were retained. Of the 69 retained studies, 15 documents discussed LISP programming language, another 34 discussed PROLOG programming language, the remaining 20 documents were spread between Logic and Object Oriented Programming (LOOP), ARCHLOG, Epistemic Ontology Language with Constraints (EOLC), Python, C++, ADA and JAVA programming languages. This review provides information on the year of implementation, development team, capabilities, limitations and applications of each of the AI programming languages discussed. The information in this review could guide practitioners and researchers in AI to make the right choice of languages to implement their novel AI methods.

Graham Campbell

There are many open questions surrounding the characterisation of groups with context-sensitive word problem. Only in 2018 was it shown that all finitely generated virtually Abelian groups have multiple context-free word problems, and it is a long-standing open question as to where to place the word problems of hyperbolic groups in the formal language hierarchy. In this paper, we introduce a new language class called the parallel hyperedge replacement string languages, show that it contains all multiple context-free and ET0L languages, and lay down the foundations for future work that may be able to place the word problems of many hyperbolic groups in this class.

Nils van den Honert, Diederick Vermetten, Anna V. Kononova

The ever-increasing need for random numbers is clear in many areas of computer science, from neural networks to optimization. As such, most common programming language provide easy access to Pseudorandom Number Generators. However, these generators are not all made equal, and empirical verification has previously shown some to be flawed in key ways. Because of the constant changes in programming languages, we perform the same empirical benchmarking using large batteries of statistcal tests on a wide array of PRNGs, and identify that while some languages have improved significantly over the years, there are still cases where the default PRNG fails to deliver sufficiently random results.

Dominik Schlechtweg, Nina Tahmasebi, Simon Hengchen et al.

Word meaning is notoriously difficult to capture, both synchronically and diachronically. In this paper, we describe the creation of the largest resource of graded contextualized, diachronic word meaning annotation in four different languages, based on 100,000 human semantic proximity judgments. We thoroughly describe the multi-round incremental annotation process, the choice for a clustering algorithm to group usages into senses, and possible - diachronic and synchronic - uses for this dataset.

Šarūnas Šavėla

This article addresses the concept of music (μουσική), the problematics of its definition and ambiguities of its conceptual content. Here we discuss the philosophical treatises of Classical Greece, question the conflicting values attributed to the phenomenon of music, and analyse the relationship between music and text in a musical-poetical performance. Due to the very broad understanding of what music is and how it functions, the philosophical treatises discuss music both as a practice that corresponds to the divine laws of kosmos and as an activity of doubtful significance. Such opposing values attributed to musical practices render the discussion of the phenomenon in its entirety more difficult. This article proposes reconsidering the approaches towards musical thinking, musical practices, and literary texts that were followed by music, suggests to distinguish the conceptual layers based on the different meanings of the term, and to analyse these layers in a clearly defined, yet interlinked, way.

J. Maciuszek, Mateusz Polak, Natalia Świa̧tkowska

The influence of grammatical gender on cognitive processes is an important issue in contemporary psycholinguistics and language psychology, particularly in research concerning the relations between grammar and semantics. The extent of this effect is dependent on a given language’s gender system and its grammatical specifics. The aim of the presented research was to investigate grammatical gender effects in Polish – a Slavic language with three singular and two plural grammatical genders. In Experiment 1, triadic similarity judgments were used, and it turned out that the grammatical gender of nouns influenced perceived similarity of words in case of animals, but not inanimate objects or abstract concepts. In Experiment 2 we used a modified Implicit Association Test; results suggest that grammatical gender seems to be of implicit nature, as grammatical gender consistency influenced reaction times and the number of classification errors. In Experiment 3 participants assigned male and female voices to animals and inanimate objects, which were presented either as words or as pictures. Grammatical gender effects occurred for both animate and inanimate objects and were similar for verbal and visual stimuli. It turned out that in the Polish language the influence of grammatical gender may occur on the lexicosemantic level and the conceptual level, and concerns both animate and inanimate objects. Results are discussed in context of the similarity and gender and the sex and gender hypotheses.

Tracey M. Derwing, M. Munro