Przebieg procesu przed sądami podkomorskimi Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego znacząco różnił się od tego właściwego pozostałym pierwszoinstancyjnym jurysdykcjom (sądom) szlacheckim. Podkomorzy wydawał pozwy dopiero po przekazaniu mu sprawy przez sądy ziemski, grodzki albo Trybunał Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego, a następnie informował uczestników postępowania o terminie wyjazdu na sporny grunt. Przynajmniej część z podejmowanych wówczas czynności prowadzono pod gołym niebem, choć podkomorzowie korzystali niekiedy z izb sądowych lub wzniesionych przez strony drewnianych konstrukcji. Prawidłowy przebieg granicy ustalano po wysłuchaniu argumentów stron, zapoznaniu się z dokumentami potwierdzającymi prawa do ziemi, obejrzeniu znaków granicznych oraz przesłuchaniu świadków. Czynności te nie zawsze przebiegały sprawnie. Rozstrzygnięcie zapadało w formie wyroku, od którego przysługiwała apelacja. Wydawał go podkomorzy albo jego zastępca (komornik), a spisywał regent podkomorski. Nie wszystkie postępowania przed sądami podkomorskimi były spokojne. Niejednokrotnie skarżono się też na ich wysokie koszty.
History (General) and history of Europe, History of Law
We study reinforcement learning (RL) on volatility surfaces through the lens of Scientific AI. We ask whether axiomatic no-arbitrage laws, imposed as soft penalties on a learned world model, can reliably align high-capacity RL agents, or mainly create Goodhart-style incentives to exploit model errors. From classical static no-arbitrage conditions we build a finite-dimensional convex volatility law manifold of admissible total-variance surfaces, together with a metric law-penalty functional and a Graceful Failure Index (GFI) that normalizes law degradation under shocks. A synthetic generator produces law-consistent trajectories, while a recurrent neural world model trained without law regularization exhibits structured off-manifold errors. On this testbed we define a Goodhart decomposition \(r = r^{\mathcal{M}} + r^\perp\), where \(r^\perp\) is ghost arbitrage from off-manifold prediction error. We prove a ghost-arbitrage incentive theorem for PPO-type agents, a law-strength trade-off theorem showing that stronger penalties eventually worsen P\&L, and a no-free-lunch theorem: under a law-consistent world model and law-aligned strategy class, unconstrained law-seeking RL cannot Pareto-dominate structural baselines on P\&L, penalties, and GFI. In experiments on an SPX/VIX-like world model, simple structural strategies form the empirical law-strength frontier, while all law-seeking RL variants underperform and move into high-penalty, high-GFI regions. Volatility thus provides a concrete case where reward shaping with verifiable penalties is insufficient for robust law alignment.
We investigated plasma heating enhancement using a high-intensity, high-contrast laser and a cone-attached target. Fast electron spectra and X-ray emission were measured with an electron spectrometer and a Bragg crystal spectrometer. The results were analyzed using PrismSPECT simulations with a two-component electron distribution model and empirical scaling laws. X-ray pinhole images showed that the cone effectively focused multi-spot laser light near its tip, enhancing local emission. While high-contrast laser irradiation reduced the fast electron slope temperature for flat targets, the use of a cone increased it by over threefold, corresponding to a fourfold rise in laser intensity. X-ray spectral analysis indicated an electron temperature of ~9~keV for the cone case, 17.5 times higher than that with a low-contrast laser. These findings demonstrate that combining high-contrast laser irradiation with cone-target geometry significantly improves laser energy coupling and plasma heating efficiency.
Electrical grid congestion has emerged as an immense challenge in Europe, making the forecasting of load and its associated metrics increasingly crucial. Among these metrics, peak load is fundamental. Non-time-resolved models of peak load have their advantages of being simple and compact, and among them Velander's formula (VF) is widely used in distribution network planning. However, several aspects of VF remain inadequately addressed, including year-ahead prediction, scaling of customers, aggregation, and, most importantly, the lack of probabilistic elements. The present paper proposes a quantile interpretation of VF that enables VF to learn truncated cumulative distribution functions of peak loads with multiple quantile regression under non-crossing constraints. The evaluations on non-residential customer data confirmed its ability to predict peak load year ahead, to fit customers with a wide range of electricity consumptions, and to model aggregations of customers. A noteworthy finding is that for a given electricity consumption, aggregations of customers have statistically larger peak loads than a single customer.
Although a substantial part of the body of laws of an EU Member State is founded upon European Union law and norms, the number of preliminary questions emanating from courts in the Czech Republic appears to be disproportionately low compared to other similar EU Member States. The aim of this article is to analyse and outline possible reasons for the lack of preliminary questions coming from the Czech Republic. In her analysis, the author identifies three possible factors underpinning the issue. These factors include attitudes towards the EU and a general lack of understanding of the relevance of EU laws and norms; the role of preliminary rulings; and the perception and recognition of courts. An integral part of this analysis is a critical commentary on the shifts in how courts and tribunals are perceived within the meaning of Art. 267 TFEU. Lastly, the author offers guidance to fellow legal professionals and academics for interpreting EU norms.
The article is devoted to the problem of the formation of international municipal law as a branch
of current international public law. There is a focus on studying the international aspects of local self-
determination in foreign legal sciences, with an emphasis on exploring the problems of the new role
of cities in international relations, as well as managerial problems of the municipal self-government
between national powers. Participation of cities in global political structures and international rule-
making, according to foreign experts, will provide the basis for the emergence of international municipal
law. For the development of the concept of international municipal law, an important role was played
by the work of the research group “The Role of Сities in International Law”, created by the International
Law Association (ILA), as well as the academic publication “Research Handbook on International Law and
Cities”, which brought together a great international team of scholars. A comprehensive analysis of the
impact of international law on cities, which act as leading units of local self-government, sheds light on the
growing global role of cities and argues for a new understanding of international law in light of the urban
turn. The materials of this collection allow us to identify the components of the concept of international
municipal law, or international local government law, formed in Western legal thought.
In domestic jurisprudence, the concept of international municipal law was formed primarily in the
works of M.O. Baymuratov, who was a pioneer in this area and remains a leading researcher of international
legal aspects of local self-government to this day. Unlike the Western doctrine, which emphasizes the
development and involvement of cities in international activities, M.O. Baymuratov and his scholars link
the emergence of international municipal law with the processes of constitutionalization of international
public law and the internationalization of the constitutional legal order of states. These processes are
accompanied by growing international recognition of the institution of local self-government, primarily
through its international legal regulation and contextualization of relevant aspects of the activities of
local self-government bodies, taking into account their international activities, in particular through the
development and adoption of a number of international multilateral intergovernmental treaties and the
preparation at the UN level of a draft World Charter of Local Self-Government.
In the field of municipal law, significant processes of borrowing international legal standards of
local self-government by national constitutional law are taking place, primarily through the system of
international legal treaties of the UN and the Council of Europe.
These “external” factors are associated with legal globalization, which is aimed at the standardization
and unification of the most important social-state relations, which are of significant importance not only
for the nation-state, but also for the entire international community of states. Local self-government is also
included in the circle of such priority-most important relations.
Mingyu Yu, Sahani Amaya Iddawela, Jiayang Wang
et al.
GaSe is an important member of the post-transition metal chalcogenide family and is an emerging two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor material. Because it is a van der Waals material, it can be fabricated into atomic-scale ultrathin films, making it suitable for the preparation of compact, heterostructure devices. In addition, GaSe possesses unusual optical and electronic properties, such as a shift from an indirect-bandgap single-layer film to a direct-bandgap bulk material, rare intrinsic p-type conduction, and nonlinear optical behaviors. These properties make GaSe an appealing candidate for the fabrication of field-effect transistors, photodetectors, and photovoltaics. However, the wafer-scale production of pure GaSe single crystal thin films remains challenging. This study develops an approach for the direct growth of nanometer-thick GaSe films on GaAs substrates using molecular beam epitaxy. It yields smooth thin GaSe films with the rare γ'-polymorph. We analyze the formation mechanism of γ'-GaSe using density functional theory and speculate that it is stabilized by Ga vacancies since the formation enthalpy of γ'-GaSe tends to become lower than that of other polymorphs when the Ga vacancy concentration increases. Finally, we investigate the growth conditions of GaSe, providing valuable insights for exploring 2D/3D quasi-van der Waals epitaxial growth.
I argue that generative AI will have an uneven effect on the evolution of the law. To do so, I consider generative AI as a labor-augmenting technology that reduces the cost of both writing more complete contracts and litigating in court. The contracting effect reduces the demand for court services by making contracts more complete. The litigation effect, by contrast, increases the demand for court services by a) making contracts less complete and b) reducing litigants' incentive to settle, all else equal. Where contracts are common, as in property and contract law, the change in the quantity of litigation is uncertain due to offsetting contracting and litigation effects. However, in areas where contracts are rare, as in tort law, the amount of litigation is likely to rise. Following Rubin (1977) and Priest (1977) generative AI will accelerate the evolution of tort law toward efficiency.
Una de las consecuencias inmediatas de la guerra de Rusia contra Ucrania ha sido el reconocimiento taxativo de que Ucrania «forma parte de la familia europea». El inicio de este conflicto puede retrotraerse, sin embargo, hasta marzo de 2014. Poco después de las protestas de Euromaidán, la UE firmó en 2014 con Ucrania el Acuerdo de Asociación que ha servido para enmarcar la política de vecindad con este país y posibilitar sus reformas. Tras el impacto de la pandemia del COVID-19, la invasión rusa de Ucrania a gran escala de 2022 ha supuesto el despertar de una UE geopolítica más asertiva en un mundo más inestable. Como consecuencia de ello, la UE ha relanzado las negociaciones de adhesión con los países de los Balcanes Orientales y ha admitido como candidatos a Ucrania y Moldavia. En este contexto ha nacido la Comunidad Política Europea, que podría servir de antesala a la adhesión de estos países a la UE. Sin embargo, sin un final de la guerra en el horizonte, Ucrania podría avanzar en el camino hacia la plena integración en la UE negociando el capítulo dedicado a la cultura entendiendo esta en sentido amplio, y beneficiándose de los programas e iniciativas comunitarios como otros Estados miembros por medio de una integración diferenciada.
Recibido: 20 abril 2023
Aceptado: 7 junio 2023
Tim Marshall's Prisoners of Geography, published in 2015, is an in-depth examination of the influence that geographic features exert on the geopolitical strategies, international law, historical trajectories, and socioeconomic events of nations. Marshall is an experienced foreign correspondent, drawing on his extensive experience and knowledge of world history and geopolitics.
(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2023 8(2), 791-801 | European Forum Insight of 21 November 2023 | (Table of Contents) I. Introduction - II. L’admission des investissements étrangers via la pratique des visas et des passeports dorés - III. Risque de contentieux associé à l’adoption d’un régime de sanctions européennes - IV. Utilisation du régime de protection des investissements à des fins offensives - V. Conclusion | (Abstract) The intensification of restrictive measures adopted by the European Union and its member states in the wake of Russia's offensive in Ukraine raises the question of their interaction with legal regimes ap-plicable to foreign investments which follow diametrically opposed objectives. Indeed, recent trends show that foreign investment regimes, broadly defined therein as including domestic regimes for in-vestment admission as well as international investment agreements, offer advantages which can be construed as undermining the effectiveness of European sanctions. The practice of "golden passports" and the possibility that investment treaties be used to challenge the legality of restrictive measures are two examples. However, these possible inhibiting effects should not be overstated. Not only EU restric-tive measures are intended to comply with international agreements, but as previously shown in the context of the Ukraine Russia war, international investment agreements can be used to repair damages caused to investors during war time.
Desde la entrada en vigor del Tratado de Lisboa, la Unión Europea desarrolla una política integrada en materia de medio ambiente y energía que le posibilita adoptar medidas para hacer frente de manera conjunta a los retos que plantean el cambio climático y la seguridad de abastecimiento energético. Actualmente, la Unión Europea se encuentra en el proceso que le lleve a cumplir sus compromisos en materia de clima y energía previstos para 2030. Dichos objetivos se fijaron inicialmente en 2014 pero desde entonces se han visto ampliados en varias ocasiones. Las razones han sido diferentes: en primer lugar, el irregular grado de cumplimiento de los objetivos para 2020; posteriormente, el objetivo de neutralidad climática propuesto en 2018 y el Pacto Verde Europeo adoptado para su consecución y cuyo desarrollo se inició en 2020; finalmente, el complicado contexto geopolítico de 2022. El presente texto analiza y trata de explicar dicha evolución hasta las propuestas más recientes.
Recibido: 12 diciembre 2022
Aceptado: 17 enero 2023
Two judicial bodies, but both without right to protect the environment established. This is also how the coexistence of the two important judicial bodies located in the European area could be briefly characterized. The European Court of Human Rights and the Court of Justice of the European Union were created for different purposes, but their jurisprudence in the area of environmental protection and the protection of people's lives and health from the negative consequences of climate change overlap more than it might seem at first sight. We find certain similarities in terms of ensuring a certain degree of protection of fundamental rights in the context of the environment. The European Court of Human Rights has a priority in terms of the protection of fundamental rights in Europe, but in the field of the environment it faces several problems. Especially when we are talking about the protection of rights for future generations, where there is no direct victim or direct violation of fundamental rights, only a very high risk of their violation. On the other hand, the Court of Justice of the European Union has a much greater assumption of effectiveness, which has the potential to change the legislation of the member states and thereby indirectly ensure the protection of people's lives and health. Recently, the activity of the European Commission has been increasing in the interest of achieving climate neutrality, and this also means greater pressure on the states in the interest of the complete and correct transposition of European regulations in the field of the environment. In case of deficiencies, the European Commission can intervene by filing a lawsuit according to Article 258 of the TFEU, and achieve the required remedy. Although, such a procedure is not primarily aimed at the protection of fundamental rights, the positive impact on their protection cannot be neglected.
The Israeli democracy regulates the operation of the judiciary through the constraints of formal rules that check the political actors, the individual judges, and the judiciary. Basic laws, laws and regulations prescribe the operation of every subject. Yet beyond these formal rules, informal institutions and practices are sometimes equally important in the operation of the judiciary, as they are in any constitutional system. In Israel, some of these informal institutions are crucial for the flourishing of democracy and the rule of law, through their protection of judicial independence from external political interference. The imminent possibility that political actors may set some of them aside is nothing less than a potential transformation in the constitutional order. Over the past few decades, judges and court administrators have introduced other internal informal institutions in the administration of the Israeli Judiciary, which qualify formal judicial accountability mechanisms in ways that may prove to be detrimental to democratic principles. This article discusses informal institutions that are important in the operation of the Israeli judiciary, separating the former external kind that are conducive to the rule of law—such as the illegitimacy of political and partisan considerations in judicial appointments—and whose disregard may signal democratic decay from the latter internal kind that may prove detrimental to the courts—such as opaquely changing who is responsible for court administration. Lastly, the political attempt to change informal institutions, detailed herein, can be seen as a harbinger of the current attempt to change formal institutions in the constitutional status of the judiciary in Israel.
Law of Europe, Law in general. Comparative and uniform law. Jurisprudence
The authorities in a number of states are concerned about the need for public disclosure of the recommendation algorithms that are used in online services. The introduction of regulations aimed at software developers is frequently proposed as a potential solution to this problem of algorithm transparency. These requirements, which must be fulfilled by the developers of software products, can be administrative regulations or standards regulations. However, despite these efforts, in the absence of direct legislative regulation, users continue to encounter the possibility that a social network feed or a search service result may present content that is unequal or unclear. This is due to the fact that the logic behind these recommendations is not clear and is concealed by IT giants. The following are among the main provisions of legislative initiatives: the liability of digital platforms to publish the mechanisms of recommendation services, the responsibility to inform the user about the processing of personal data and the possibility for the user to refuse such processing. States have recognized the problem and are approaching it from different positions. Each region chooses what to prioritize in terms of the law. We see that for China and Europe, all areas of platforms are important, whereas for Russia, news platforms and video hosting are of interest and for India, social media is the most important platform category. However, in all of the countries, the requirements for the disclosure of the recommendation engine to a certain extent are expanding. The amount of information that is publicly available as well as the order in which it is disclosed are both variable. This study demonstrates the commonalities and differences in the approaches taken by various countries.
(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2022 7(3), 1325-1356 | Article | (Table of Contents) I. Introduction. - II. CSDP: Between a common and differentiated policy. - II.1. CSDP as a common policy of the EU. - II.2. Differentiated integration in CFSDP. - III. PESCO's microcosm of differentiated integration. - III.1. The awakening of the "Sleeping Beauty". - III.2. Participation in PESCO. - III.3. PESCO projects. - IV. PESCO: Contributing to a common security and defence policy? - IV.1. General principles in EU CFSP and their enforcement. - IV.2. Consistency in relation to differentiated integration in PESCO. - IV.3. Sincere cooperation in relation to differentiated integration in PESCO. - V. Conclusion- | (Abstract) The use of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) by the European Union to manage defence cooperation between its Member States is the most recent example of Differentiated Integration (DI) in the EU. Yet differentiation may come at a price. The main aim of the present Article is to assess to what extent defence cooperation under the umbrella of PESCO can be cut up in pieces and yet still be considered a common defence adhering to the EU's general principles of consistency and sincere cooperation. The question, therefore, is whether DI in PESCO is limited by these principles, and consequently, whether the CSDP, despite the differentiation, still contributes to a common policy. In short, the question is whether there is a tension between commonness and differentiation in EU security cooperation.
We establish a weighted positive mass theorem which unifies and generalizes results of Baldauf--Ozuch and Chu--Zhu. Our result is in fact equivalent to the usual positive mass theorem, and can be regarded as a positive mass theorem for smooth metric measure spaces. We also study Dirac operators on certain warped product manifolds associated to smooth metric measure spaces. Applications of this include, among others, an alternative proof for a special case of our positive mass theorem, eigenvalue bounds for the Dirac operator on closed spin manifolds, and a new way to understand the weighted Dirac operator using warped products.