Hasil untuk "Law of Europe"

Oluwatosin Reis, Nkechi Emmanuella Eneh, Benedicta Ehimuan et al.

As the world becomes increasingly interconnected through digital technologies, the protection of individuals' privacy has emerged as a critical concern. This paper conducts a comprehensive global review of privacy legislation and enforcement mechanisms, shedding light on the challenges posed by the digital age. With a focus on the intricate balance between technological advancements and the fundamental right to privacy, the study explores the evolving legal landscape and its implications for individuals, businesses, and governments. The analysis encompasses diverse jurisdictions, highlighting the variations in privacy laws and enforcement approaches across regions. From the European Union's robust General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) to the nuanced approaches in Asia and the Americas, this review synthesizes the evolving regulatory frameworks. Special attention is given to emerging issues such as the use of artificial intelligence, biometrics, and surveillance technologies, which pose unique challenges to existing privacy paradigms. Moreover, the paper investigates the effectiveness of enforcement mechanisms in ensuring compliance with privacy laws. It examines the role of governmental agencies, regulatory bodies, and international collaborations in addressing cross-border data flows and global privacy challenges. The study also evaluates the impact of recent high-profile privacy incidents on shaping legislative responses and enforcement strategies. By presenting a holistic view of privacy law challenges in the digital age, this research contributes to the ongoing discourse on safeguarding individuals' privacy rights in an era of rapid technological innovation. The findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, legal practitioners, businesses, and individuals seeking a deeper understanding of the evolving dynamics surrounding privacy legislation and enforcement on a global scale. Keywords: Law, Privacy Law, Digital Age, Review, Data Protection.

M. Hesselink, G. D. Vries

The article examines the main trends in the European space regarding the basic principles of contractual regulation of relations. The emphasis is placed on the dominance of the private law concept in the field of contractual relations. The author concludes that the fundamental principles of contractual regulation are of an evaluative nature. The article supports the assertion of scholars that the principles of European contract law are axiological in nature - filled with evaluative content and require interpretation in each particular case. The basic principles for contractual relations are the principles of fairness, good faith and reasonableness. The author emphasises that these abstract evaluative categories work together, and only in interaction can they ensure effective legal regulation of contractual relations. These principles determine the discretionary nature of legal regulation of contracts in the European area, including freedom of contract.The author concludes that the DCFRs provide for the principles of regulation of private contractual relations based on the use of a whole range of basic fundamental principles with an evaluative legal nature, which indicates that there is a tendency in science to fill European law with axiological content. The European principles of contractual regulation of relations based on the principles of good faith, reasonableness and fairness, filled with the concepts of freedom of contract and discretion underlying such regulation, are the initial basis which forms the basis for application and implementation of the contractual structure in private law relations. The contract acquires the features of universality and plasticity, namely, remaining an instrument of private discretionary regulation, it acquires the ability to effectively and properly regulate numerous special types of private law relations.

Marek Starý

Book review on VACEK, Josef. Apelační soud v letech 1627–1727. Studie a prameny. Praha: Auditorium, 2023, 240 s.

Tiago Brandão

The Innovation Delusion: How Our Obsession with the New Has Disrupted the Work That Matters Most (2020), by Lee Vinsel and Andrew L. Russell, presents a blistering critique of the contemporary ideology of innovation, exposing what the authors call «innovation-speak» – a hegemonic discourse that glorifies disruptive change and marginalises the essential work of maintenance. The Innovation Delusion, by Lee Vinsel and Andrew L. Russell, published not many years ago (2020), is among the scholar books one must read, especially for younger generations and policymakers around the world. Many years ago, Steven Shapin (1989) unearthed the role of the technician in modern science. Innovation Delusion does the same for hidden activities in innovation — i.e., activities related to technology and engineering. Maintenance, upkeep and care is the motto behind Vinsel and Russell’s book.

Erich Brenner, Ronald Bleys, R. De Caro et al.

BACKGROUND In 2008, members of the TEPARG provided first insights into the legal and ethical framework governing body donation in Europe. In 2012, a first update followed. This paper is now the second update on this topic and tries to extend the available information to many mor European contries. METHODS For this second update, we have asked authors from all European countries to contribute their national perspectives. By this inquiry, we got many contributions compiled in this paper. When we did not get a personal contribution, one of us (EB) searched the internet for relevant information. RESULTS Perspectives on the legal and ethical framework governing body donation in Europe. CONCLUSIONS We still see that a clear and rigorous legal framework is still unavailable in several countries. We found national regulations in 18 out of 39 countries; two others have at least federal laws. Several countries accept not only donated bodies but also utilise unclaimed bodies. These findings can guide policymakers in reviewing and updating existing laws and regulations related to body donation and anatomical studies.

Nikolaos Koutsimpogiorgos, K. Frenken, A. Herrmann

While online platforms were initially applauded for improving services in a range of sectors, they are currently being criticized for ignoring laws and regulations. We analyse the evolution of Helpling – the largest domestic cleaning platform company in Europe – by focusing on the ways that Helpling has adapted its platform to regulations in five national contexts (France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom). Using data on changing Terms and Conditions, we show that Helpling initially tried to introduce a single business model across Europe, but quickly started to adapt to national regulatory contexts. Informed by arguments on ‘varieties of capitalism’ in Europe, we base our case study on a comparison of the different national trajectories pursued by Helpling.

Mark Dawson

Recent changes to EU fiscal policy, such as the landmark economic governance reform package passed in early 2024, have established a dense ‘coordination space’ that steers crucial social and economic choices at the EU and national levels. This coordination space, however, departs significantly from its historical predecessors. It largely operates within a hard law framework using finance rather than either rules or soft persuasion and peer review as its main tool of influence. In this coordination space, EU law is less a system of uniform rules underlain with sanctions than a negotiation framework where discretion abounds, and rules are never broken but rather ‘adjusted’. As this paper argues, the significance of the coordination space lies not only in its unique governance model and unclear boundaries but rather its increasing centrality to the governance of the EU. As the paper will explore using the rule of law example, even areas of EU law commonly conceived as necessarily insulated from political bargaining are increasingly drawn into the negotiation logic and instruments of coordination, rendering even more crucial a clear understanding of the trade-offs policy coordination implies. By unpacking 8 core features of policy coordination in the 2020s, the paper is therefore devoted to illuminating an expanding battleground within which EU law is being re-defined.

Sanja Bogojević

Restoring ecosystems and enhancing biodiversity is one of many regulatory ambitions under the European Green Deal. The motivations to do so include, but are not limited to, enabling carbon removal by capturing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in land. The business model of such schemes is to help the EU and its Member States meet their climate obligations whilst safeguarding biodiversity, and when relevant, enable sustainable agricultural practices by creating transferable carbon credits awarded to land managers pursuing such practices. The idea of introducing market-based mechanisms in the management of ecosystem services is not a novelty, but the increasing prominence of carbon removals in the European Green Deal and its related legislative actions warrants careful consideration of legal quandaries about how such removals are to be carried out, why, where and by whom.

Alon Helled

Gabriella Klára Molnár

There is no doubt that water, or as it is often called, “blue gold”, is our elementary need or basic necessity. Without water, life and an adequate quality of life are unimaginable; together with air, water is one of our most important global resources. Albeit the protection of the right to water was only developed in the last century, its formal and essential elements and its place in the system of basic human rights have undergone significant development, its content is currently expanding, and its relationship with the rest of the basic human rights is sometimes still controversial. International law has been dealing with the right to water since the second half of the 20th century, but in the last couple of decades, in addition to environmental protection and nature protection law, other areas of law, such as constitutional law, have also shown interest to the right to water. Many countries have raised the right to water to a constitutional level, thereby emphasizing the importance and need for a constitutional protection of the right to water.

Polina B. Podmazova

The opening of the Paris Conservatoire in 1795 played a huge role in the 19th century development of French and wider European performing arts. The article discusses the uniqueness of violin education in the 18th century France and identifies the reasons for the emergence of the world's first educational institution that provided free tuition to all its students regardless of their social background. The article is supplemented with the Russian language translation of the law on the establishment of Paris Conservatoire and a list of its first professors. The article provides a detailed analysis of the initial stage in the development of violin training associated with the names of such famous French violinists as Pierre Gaviniès, Rodolphe Kreutzer, Pierre Rode, and Pierre Baillot. Their wellcoordinated methodological efforts and commitment to common aesthetic ideals encouraged the development of a very powerful violin school that left the rest of Europe behind. The Paris Conservatoire concentrated the best of the country’s artistic potential, thus shaping the musical landscape of France. It also served as a role model for other secular educational institutions located in Europe’s major musical centers.

Ahmad Budiyono, Arif Rahman Hakim, Mohammad Lindu Aji Santoso

Charity means deeds (good), actions that bring rewards (according to the teachings of Islam), and which are carried out to do good to society or fellow human beings. While pious means the opposite of evil. So good deeds are all actions according to the instructions of the Qur'an and as-Sunnah which if done can bring benefits to oneself, the group, and the community as a whole. This research is a literature study with a documentary data collection method, using content analysis. The results of the study indicate that good deeds based on sincere and sincere intentions will have an influence and increase as well as moral perfection and increase religious attitudes. Qur'anthethat a holy life, the beauty of the hereafter, and the attainment of the state of closeness (qurb) and encounter (liq?)with Allah the Creator depend on faith and good deeds.Qur'anTheplaces great emphasis on good deeds and only good deeds are the means of happiness and good fortune. The benchmarks and levels of charity piety are in harmony (not contrary) to the Shari'a and Allah's revelation.

Николина Бајић, Тања Дундић

Транссексуалитет се у науци дефинише као екстремни облик полне дисфорије - неподударности полног идентитета и полне улоге са биолошким полом у датом случају. Наука је доказала да транссексуалност није питање животног избора, нити се ради о менталној болести, већ је ријеч о тзв. интерсексуалном поремећају који кулминира у настојању да се изврши операција промјене пола у конкретном случају. Када се овом проблему приступи са правног аспекта, неколико питања се издваја у први план - принцип непромјенљивости пола, правне претпоставке за промјену пола, промјена грађанског статуса, те транссексуалитет посматран кроз призму брака у смислу његових услова за пуноважност. Наведено, недвосмислено упућује на предмет нашег истраживања, а то је: услови, поступак и надлежност за промјену пола, промјена пола и право на планирање породице, транссексуалитет и брак (питање истовјетности/различитости полова са аспекта пуноважности брака, хетеросексуални или хомосексуални брак/животна заједница - правно уређење и правнa дејства). Иако су од прве хируршке интервенције промјене пола прошле деценије и иако се број транссексуалних особа сваким даном повећава, овој проблематици се и даље приступа са извјесном резервом и незаинтересованошћу када је у питању правно нормирање. Приликом израде рада примјењивали смо: нормативни метод, упоредно-правни метод, друге методе које се примјењују и у другим друштвеним наукама (анализа, синтеза, индукција, дедукција), а све у циљу указивања на озбиљност и потребу правног уређења овог проблема, све актуелнијег у друштву 21.вијека.

Strikaitė-Latušinskaja Goda

The term ‘hard cases’ trace back to Herbert Lionel Adolphus Hart who was one of the first legal philosophers who directly used it in his works and Ronald Myles Dworkin to whom the development and establishment of this concept in legal language is linked. Even though these two legal philosophers in one of the most famous - The Hart–Dworkin – legal debate couldn’t agree on certain things, they both agreed that when dealing with hard cases, there is a need to act creatively in order to resolve such a case properly. The division of cases into easy ones and hard ones gradually lost its popularity, even in legal theory, but perhaps it can be resurrected and used these challenging times to help meet the challenges prompted by technology? Methods: This paper analyses the dichotomy of hard and easy cases as well as circumstances relating to the courts’ decision-making processes in such cases. The essay examines whether the solutions proposed by legal positivism (such as applying syllogisms and precedents) are sufficient to deal with easy cases. The paper also examines what factors analysed by legal realists have an impact on judges while making decisions in hard cases (for example, psychological factors, such as hindsight bias, intuition, hunches, the anchor effect, laziness, unwillingness to take responsibility, or the gambler’s fallacy, as well as social factors, like upbringing, life experience, social relations, gender, age, education, etc.). Given that the article is theoretical in nature, logical, systemic, teleological methods dominate. Both descriptive method and scientific research method were used as well. Results and Conclusions: The author concludes that easy cases should eventually be delegated to artificial intelligence to resolve, whereas hard cases will remain in the competence of human judges, at least until technological development reaches a certain level.

A. Yu. Yastrebova, E. E. Gulyaeva

INTRODUCTION. The individual's right to health is a set of natural and positive legal frameworks that govern a person’s life activity, individual and family wellbeing, enforcement of health guarantees by the statesparticipants of universal and regional treaties of the field under question. The formation of this right stems from biological characteristics of each person, socio-economic conditions, environment, access to health and sanitation services, national health-care system progress, existence of vulnerable groups of population. Goals of the UN Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 (UN General Assembly resolution 70/1) include such essential aspects of the right to health as ending poverty and hunger in all its forms everywhere; promote food security and healthy lifestyle; the well-being of all individuals at any age; ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all; protection and restoration of water-related ecosystems; enhancement of the States capacity to prevent and reduce national and global health risks. According to the position of the World Health Organization (WHO) the right to health imposes on the States a legal obligation to ensure timely access to adequate levels of high-quality health care, clean and safe drinking water, sanitation, adequate nutrition, shelter, health-related information and education, gender equality. As a result, the considerable amount of attention is paid to the analysis of the content of general and specific international instruments at the universal level and the international legal specificities of enshrining and maintaining an individual's right to health. The text also places the emphasis on its normative framing in the law of the Council of Europe and the European Union, reflecting the decisions and rulings of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR).MATERIALS AND METHODS. The legal framework of the study is based on universal international treaties of the UN system, regional regulations of the Council of Europe and the EU, legal position of the UN specialized agencies, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the ECHR. The scientific works of domestic and foreign authors related to the study of the right to health are used as a theoretical foundation. The research uses general scientific and special cognitive techniques wherein legal analysis and synthesis, systemic, formal-legal, comparative-legal, historical-legal and dialectical methods are applied.RESEARCH RESULTS. The research indicates that the modern international legal concept of the right to health is being developed at the universal and regional level. Furthermore, specific international legal guarantees for the protection of this right are emerging for special groups such as women and children, refugees, stateless persons and migrant workers, protected persons, the wounded and the sick – all persons affected by international armed conflicts. There is a certain trend in Council of Europe and EU law towards an extended interpretation of the human right to health responding to new challenges to the realization that right, concerning bioethics, human genome editing, and the effects of nuclear testing and environmental pollution.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Following a review of the content and implementation of the right to health in the universal and regional international legal systems for the human rights and freedoms protection, the authors suggest its incorporation in a group of personal rights, social benefits provided by the state, and simultaneously in a collective right to development pertaining to the population as a whole. The universal international legal institutions establishing special rights for vulnerable groups will continue to be applied by member states in the context of a situational response to the global needs of families, women and children, international migration, armed conflicts, environmental conditions, and bioethical issues. The authors encourage the complement of the European system of human rights protection with an additional protocol to the Council of Europe Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950, involving the right to health security.

Floriana Colao

La clemenza individuale – la grazia – e collettiva – amnistia ed indulto – sono al centro di alcune recenti pubblicazioni, in cui la prospettiva storica è decisiva per capire il senso di questi istituti nel sistema costituzionale e penale, soprattutto nel passaggio dall’«Italia paese delle amnistie» – come scriveva Salvemini nel 1950 – all’odierna eclisse; risale infatti al 2006 l’ultimo contestato indulto, privo, per la prima volta, della contestuale amnistia. La clemenza appare «difficile», «antitesi» piuttosto che «fattore» della giustizia penale, in quanto percepita dall’opinione pubblica come spia della «cattiva coscienza del legislatore» – Radbruch – che, incapace di riformare il sistema, è periodicamente costretto a svuotare le carceri, in un pragmatismo senza principi, in un ‘perdonismo di Stato’. Questa narrazione pubblica – alimentata anche dai giuristi tra Ottocento e Novecento – pare divenuta ‘senso comune’, un pregiudizio difficile da scalfire, al tempo del populismo penale e dei suoi corollari, tra questi il paradigma vittimario, per cui l’amnistia si tradurrebbe in un’offesa alle vittime (Pugiotto). Non è sempre stato così; la «clementia regis, clementia iustitiae» aveva senso nell’antico regime, che «puniva graziando e graziava punendo»; nel secolarizzato Stato legislativo la legalità consiste nell’applicazione della legge (Lacchè). In questo orizzonte la Corte costiuzionale ha raccomandato al legislatore un’inversione di tendenza in tema di amnistia, il passaggio da «strumento eccezionale ad applicazione ordinaria a strumento ordinario ad applicazione eccezionale». (Pomanti). Dopo la revisione dell’articolo 79 della Costituzione – legge costituzionale 1/1992 – base giuridica dell’eclisse dell’amnistia, una ‘nuova narrazione’ fa leva sull’art. 27, che vieta trattamenti contrari al senso di umanità. Le denunzie della Cedu della realtà delle carceri italiane sono il fondamento della richiesta di provvedimenti deflattivi, per riportare la pena detentiva nell’alveo della legalità, dopo l’ipertrofica carcerazione, iscritta nel «diritto penale massimo» (Anastasia, Corleone, Pugiotto). Sono lontani gli anni in cui l’amnistia assolse al compito di un’opportuna politica criminale; i provvedimenti del 1970, che beneficiarono i reati commessi nell’ «anno degli studenti» e nell’«autunno caldo», adeguarono l’ordinamento giuridico alla realtà sociale, in una’pacificazione’ al tempo auspicata dall’opinione pubblica democratica (Mazzacuva). Il legame tra conflittualità politica, clemenza e poteri dello Stato è il tema più studiato nelle recenti pubblicazioni in tema di grazia ed amnistia, con particolare riferimento alla giustizia di transizione, categoria storiografica che usa un diverso approccio rispetto alla tradizionale continuità/rottura, che caratterizza ogni mutamento storico (Bianchi Riva). In questo orizzonte certe ‘eredità della storia’, la giustizia sommaria o l’oblio, segnano dunque anche la nostra contemporaneità, alla ricerca di una via d’uscita moralmente e giuridicamente negoziata, socialmente condivisibile, da regimi violenti ed oppressivi. Vendetta giustizia e riconciliazione, che nell’animo umano dovrebbero essere disgiunte, sembrano «difficilmente districabili» (Portinaro). La particolarità del ’caso Italia’ nell’ambito della giustizia di transizione – con l’ambiguo intreccio tra storia, memoria, narrazione pubblica tramite il diritto penale – risalta alla luce della comparazione internazionale, con l’amnistia legata ad esperienze di violenza collettiva, dalla dittatura alla democrazia, la pace dopo la guerra, il conflitto interno in corso (Portinaro, Maculan, Caroli). Nell’ampia monografia del giovane penalista Paolo Caroli, Il potere di non punire, l’amnistia Togliatti – studiata in law e in action – è assunta, al di la delle intenzioni del guardagilli comunista, come punto di partenza della «transizione amnesica italiana», tipica di un «paese» – con le parole di Pasolini – «senza memoria, il che equivale a dire senza storia». Nella costante sottolineatura della «anomalia italiana» in confronto con le esperienze internazionali di giustizia di transizione, Caroli traccia, tra l’altro, un paragone tra il «diritto penale per uscire dalla guerra e il diritto penale per uscire da Tangentopoli», che – a suo avviso – convergono in una «impunità di fatto». Il potere di non punire pone poi un opportuno interrogativo, a proposito dell’attitudine dello «strumento penale per tutelare la memoria». Quanto alla storia l’amnistia, polemicamente detta Togliatti, fu varata dal Ministero De Gasperi, che traghettò l’Italia dal fascismo alla Repubblica; il decreto presidenziale 22 Giugno 1946 pare irriducibile a mero «colpo di spugna sui crimini fascisti» (Franzinelli). L’amnistia riguardava «delitti anche gravi commessi per una specie di forza d’inerzia del movimento insurrezionale antifascista», e delitti commessi dalle «giovani generazioni», cresciute nel fascismo, e che la «esteriore e coatta disciplina» del regime aveva reso «incapaci di distinguere il bene dal male». Le parole di Togliatti erano in sintonia con la seconda sezione della Cassazione, che riconobbe l’attenuante della «propaganda fascista» ai ‘ragazzi e alle ragazze di Salò’. Un profilo del decreto 22 Giugno 1947 merita una considerazione; l’amnistia, contestuale all’avvio della Costituente, era un profilo dell’accordo tra i principali partiti. Si escludeva dall’orizzonte della Costituzione il fascismo storico e quello «eterno»; si voleva includere nella vita democratica tutti i «buoni italiani», in un atto di «pacificazione e riconciliazione».

Adam Lityński

Sąd Najwyższy w trudnym okresie polskich dziejów. Uwagi w związku z książką Arkadiusza Berezy, Sąd Najwyższy w latach 1945-1962. Organizacja i działalność, Warszawa 2012

Emanuela Pistoia

(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2016 1(2), 705-714 | European Forum Insight of 4 May 2016 | (Table of Contents) I. Introduction. - II. The path to Celaj: comparing the Court's assessment of the circumstances of the case versus the objectives of the Return Directive in Celaj and El Dridi, Achughbabian, Sagor. - III. Leaving room to States' competence on imposing criminal sanctions on illegal immigrants. - IV. Beyond methodology: Celaj as an attempted sabotage of the Return Directive? - V. Conclusion. | (Abstract) In the judgment of 1 October 2015 on case C-290/14, Celaj, the Court of Justice ruled that Directive 2008/115/EC, known as the Return Directive, in principle does not preclude legislation of a Member State which provides for the imposition of a prison sentence to migrants illegally staying as a result of their illegal re-entry into the country. The comment explores the apparently different attitude taken in the earlier and well known case-law (El Dridi, Achughbabian and Sagor). It first scrutinizes the Court's methodology respectively adopted in that case-law and in Celaj while identifying the effet utile of the Return Directive and shows that Celaj cannot be seen as reversing the Court's approach on the matter. The comment also highlights the full consistency of Celaj with Achughbabian and Sagor on the nature of State's competence to establish provisions on criminal sanctions vis-à-vis irregular migrants as one shared with the Union. However, Celaj raises serious doubts in terms of substantive law: since it establishes no conditions and limits to the duration of a custodial sentence for migrants having illegally re-entered an EU Member State in breach of an entry-ban, it potentially undermines the effective return policy which is set as the main purpose of the Return Directive.

Alexander Steden

Tomasz Demidowicz

The reform of the nobility in the Kingdom of Poland carried out between 1836 and 1861 by the Russian Empire controlling its part of Partitioned Poland constituted an element of a wider plan to transform its social and legal systems in order to bring the structure of the Polish society closer to the Russian one. This plan was part of the anti-Polish policy of the Russian Empire adopted after the defeat of the November Uprising 1830/3 1 the objective of which was to 'build a united nation of Russians and Poles'. As a result of the reform, the number of Polish nobles was reduced from 300.000 in 1830 to 84,800 in 1861, when the nobility accounted only for 17% of the total population of the Kingdom of Poland. The reform was originally planned for two years but actually lasted 25 years. Following the Russian model, the hereditary as well as personal (life) title was introduced. This principle was overtly contrary to the spirit of the Organic Statute of 1832 and infringed the rule of equality before law. undermining at the same time the integrity of the civil and criminal codes binding in the Kingdom of Poland. It also opened doors to corruption and numerous instances of bribery, costing the State Treasury 1,800,000 roubles. The reform was perceived by Poles as yet another act of repression of the Russian Empire after the fall of the November Uprising.