Artiklis keskendume tehnoloogia arengule kui mõjutegurile, mis kujundab keelekeskkonda ning toetab mitme keele arengut väikelapse- ja koolieelses eas. Uurimuse ajendiks on juhtum, kus telerit mittevaatavast eestikeelsest perest pärit kaks last hakkasid end mängusituatsioonides väljendama inglise keeles, olles sellega varem kokku puutunud vaid YouTube’i vahendusel meelelahutuse eesmärgil. YouTube’i kui digitaalse õpiruumi fenomeni paremaks mõistmiseks viisime lapsevanematega läbi poolstruktureeritud standardiseerimata paariintervjuud, et uurida, kuidas on võimalik kodus enne kooliiga toetada L1-st erineva keele omandamist nutiseadmete ja YouTube’i abil. Intervjuude analüüsimisel kasutasime kvalitatiivse sisuanalüüsi meetodit. Uurimistulemusena selgus, et vanemate rollid on dünaamilised ning need muutuvad lapse kognitiivse, sotsiaalse ja keelelise arengu käigus koosvaatamisest mentorluseni.
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"A smart device as a magic wand? Parents’ perspective on the impact of YouTube on young children’s second language acquisition"
The present article explores the role of technology in shaping language environments and supporting the acquisition of multiple languages among young children and preschoolers. The study focuses on a case where children from an Estonian-speaking family, pseudonymised as Karola and Oskar, began expressing themselves in English in gaming situations, having previously encountered the language primarily through entertainment content on YouTube. Karola started emulating English-speaking YouTubers at the age of five and even created her own videos, while Oskar mainly used English when playing with his toys.
The study aims to answer three research questions: when and how the children started using smart devices; how their choices in online content evolved as the children grew; and what roles the parents played in this process. To better understand the phenomenon of YouTube as a digital learning space, a semi-structured non-standardized paired interview was conducted with the children's parents. The goal was to investigate how it is possible to support the acquisition of a language different from L1 at home using smart devices and YouTube. The analysis of the interviews employed qualitative content analysis methods.
The results reveal that children started watching short cartoons and animated songs in L1 at the age of one or two. However, as the number of appropriate resources in Estonian on YouTube was limited, they soon opted for cartoons and videos in English. As children grew, they selected the content to watch on the basis of the characters they could relate to. The language in the videos also progressed from simple clearly pronounced words and phrases to fluent authentic use of English. The analysis indicated that parental roles are dynamic and evolve alongside the child's cognitive, social, and linguistic development, ranging from supervision during media consumption to active mentorship.
Eleven out of fourteen Estonian nominal cases are generally regarded as semantic cases, rather than grammatical, but some are more grammaticalised (i.e. less semantic) than others. These can be said to be (semi-)grammatical cases, carrying both semantic and syntactic functions. This study focusses on elative and allative case, which stand out among semantic cases in terms of multifunctionality and a higher degree of grammaticalisation. We investigate whether we can find evidence that the grammaticalisation of these cases is ongoing through an apparent time study. While previous approaches have used written data to investigate diachronic change in cases, the present study uses spontaneous spoken data by teenagers and adults to study the nature of grammatical change. This is the first study to diachronically investigate case characteristics related to multifunctionality and grammaticalisation through a quantitative distributional approach.
Kokkuvõte. Mari Aigro, Virve-Anneli Vihman. Täitsa lambist: elatiivi ja allatiivi grammatiseerumise tõendeid noorte ja täiskasvanute suulises keeles. Neljateistkümnest eesti keele käändest peetakse ühtteist semantilisteks kääneteks, kuid mõned neist paistavad olevat teistest enam grammatiseerunud. Neid võiks ka pidada (pool)grammatilisteks, kuna nad markeerivad muuhulgas verbide argumente. Käesolev uuring keskendub elatiivile ja allatiivile, mis on varasemates uuringutes esile tõusnud multifunktsionaalsuse ja grammatiseerumise poolest. Uuringus võrreldakse elatiivi ja allatiivi distributsiooni spontaanses täiskasvanute ja teismeliste suulises keeles, et uurida pseudodiakroonilisel meetodil, kas nende käänete grammatiseerumine on eesti keeles aktiivne või on tegu funktsionaalselt passiivsete kategooriatega. See on esimene uuring, mis kvantifitseerib käänete multifunktsionaalsusega seotud distributiivsed omadused, et hinnata käändeid hõlmavate grammatiliste muutuste intensiivsust.
Tässä artikkelissa kuvataan niitä strategioita, joita vironkieliset käyttävät ratkoessaan sukukielisten idiomien merkityksiä. Tarkastelun kohteena on kyselytutkimuksen avulla kerätty aineisto. Kyselytutkimukseen osallistui kaksi ryhmää, opiskelijoiden ja heitä vanhempien vastaajien ryhmä. Molemmat ryhmät tulkitsivat 20 eri-ikäisen figuratiivisen sanonnan sisältöä. Niistä osa on lainattu eri kielistä, osa on alkuperältään suomalaisia.
Analyysin kohteena ovat tulkinnoissa hyödynnetyt päättelyprosessit. Tarkoituksena on selvittää muun muassa, miten idiomikonstituentit ohjaavat sanontojen tulkintaa, millainen osuus ensyklopedisella tiedolla on siihen ja miten vähittäinen irtautuminen avainsanan konkretiasta vaikuttaa merkityksen etsintään. Artikkelissa tarkastellaan myös niitä käsityksiä sanonnan sisällöstä, jotka eivät nojaudu sanonnan yksittäisiin lekseemeihin ja ovat siten holistisempia ja korkealla abstraktiotasolla. Lisäksi pyritään löytämään vastaus seuraavaan kysymykseen: onko kielten läheisellä sukulaisuudella vaikutusta idiomien ymmärtämiseen?
Tulokset osoittavat muun muassa sen, että vironkieliset tunnistavat suomalaisia idiomeja melko hyvin ja että käytössä on lukuisia päättelystrategioita. Jos virolainen sanonta muistutti vähän etäisemminkin suomalaista, tutkimuksen osallistujat uskoivat myös merkityksen olevan identtinen. Samankaltaisuus saattaa kuitenkin olla harhaanjohtavaa: “petollisia ystäviä” (engl. false friends) löytyy paitsi sanojen myös idiomien tasolla.
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Understanding Finnish idioms – Estonian speakers’ inference strategies ***
This article describes the strategies used by Estonian speakers to interpret meanings of Finnish idioms. The data consist of responses to a survey, in which the respondents were asked to write down their understanding of the meaning of 20 figurative phrases in Finnish. The respondents were L2 speakers of Finnish, and they were divided into two groups: students and the respondents older than students.
The purpose of the data analysis was to understand the reasoning processes that the respondents utilized while trying to arrive at the correct interpretation. The analysis focused on 1) how the meaning of different constituents guides the interpretation of idioms, 2) how encyclopedic knowledge is utilized in understanding the idioms and 3) how going beyond the concrete meaning of the constituents affects the reasoning. In addition, the study aimed at analyzing how the linguistic affinity of Finnish and Estonian contributes to the understanding the idioms in the cognate language.
The analysis shows that Estonian L2 speakers of Finnish recognize Finnish idioms quite well. If the Estonian phrase has some resemblance with the Finnish one, the meaning is believed to be identical. However, the similarity can also be misleading: “false friends” are found not only at the level of words but also at the level of idioms.
Artikkeli käsittelee monikielisten kirjoittajien kirjoittamisprosessien sujuvuutta. Oppijakorpuksen keräämiseen ja analysointiin käytimme graafiteoriaan perustuvaa näppäilyntallennusohjelmaa GenoGraphiX-Log (GGXLog), jonka visualisointityökalut tarjoavat uuden lähestymistavan kirjoitusprosessin sujuvuuden analysointiin. Koko aineisto koostuu 21 yliopistoopiskelijan kirjoittamasta suomenkielisestä (L1) ja ranskankielisestä (L2) mielipidekirjoituksesta. Tässä tapaustutkimuksessa keskitymme kuitenkin vain kolmen opiskelijan kirjoitusprosesseihin ja kirjoittajaprofiileihin. Tulokset osoittavat, että kirjoitusprosessien visualisoinnin avulla pystymme tunnistamaan ja havainnollistamaan sujuvaa kirjoittamista edustavia purskeita yksityiskohtaisemmin. Lisäksi kirjoittajan tuottamat purskeet ja sanastokeskittymät voivat paljastaa kirjoittajien yksilöllisiä kirjoittajaprofiileja niin L1- kuin L2-kirjoituksessa. Tulokset auttavat parantamaan pedagogisia käytäntöjä eri koulutusympäristöissä. Lisäksi kirjoitus prosessien analyysi antaa oppijoille mahdollisuuden tunnistaa oman kirjoittajaprofiilinsa.
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A case study of multilingual writers’ writing processes: Using keystroke logging to identify formulaic sequences ***
This article deals with the fluency of multilingual writers’ writing processes. To collect and analyze the learner-corpus of our case study, we used the graph theory-based keystroke logging software GGXLog, whose visualization functions provide a new approach to the analysis of writing process fluency. The material consists of three writings in Finnish (L1) and French (L2) written by university students. In this article, we focus on the writing processes and profiles of these three students, especially regarding their bursts and formulaic sequences during the writing process. The results show that the statistics and visualization allow us to identify and illustrate bursts of fluent writing in a more detailed way. Furthermore, sequences of fluent writing can reveal the patterns of individual writer profiles, which increases the knowledge of L1 and L2 writing processes. The results in L2 writing are closely related to students’ proficiency level. These results can contribute to enhancing pedagogical practices in different educational settings.
This article describes the language of the last speakers of Lutsi as well as their family background and the sources of their language knowledge, in order to show the paths by which Lutsi language knowledge – even if only of a fragmentary sort – has survived up to the present day. The language knowledge of these last speakers is described using observations taken from the field notes and memories of other researchers as well as from my own encounters with them. This information is placed in a historical and regional context by providing a detailed overview of the historical extent of the Lutsi community, theories about Lutsi origins and how this connects with the memory of Lutsi families and observed language variation within the Lutsi speech area, changes in Lutsi speaker numbers and language use, and the history of Lutsi documentation and the observations of the researchers who documented them.
Kokkuvõte. Uldis Balodis: Lutsi keele kõnelejad ja mäletajad 20. ja 21. sajandi vahetusel. Lutsi keelt räägiti mitu sajandit Kagu-Lätis Ludza linna ümbritsevates valdades ja külades. Lutsi keel ja kultuur said tähtsaks osaks nii Latgali kui ka kogu Läti kultuuriajaloost. Lutsi keel on ühendanud Eestit ja Lätit ning saanud nende ühise pärandi sümboliks. Selle artikli esimeses osas kirjeldatakse lutsi keele uurijate (Oskar Kallas, Heikki Ojansuu, Paulopriit Voolaine, August Sang) mälestusi ja tähelepanekuid ajast, kui seda keelt veel räägiti igapäevaselt. Artikli teises osas antakse ülevaate Põlda valla Jaani küla Nikonovide perekonnast, kes olid viimaseid lutsi keele oskajaid. Samuti vaadeldakse viimaseid lutsi keelepärandi kandjaid tänapäeval – nn mäletajaid –, käsitledes nii nende elulugusid kui ka teadmisi lutsi keelest.
Kokkovyteq Lutsi kielehn. Uldis Balodis: Lutsi kiele kynelejaq ni mälehäjäq 20. ni 21. sā-āstaga vaihtusel. Mitu sā-āstakka kyneldi lutsi kīlt Ludzi ümbre valdohn ni küllihn. Lutsi kīļ um nī Lätkalihn ku kaq kȳ Lätihn kultūri aolū tähtsä oza. Lutsi kīļ um kaq tähtsä köüdüs Läti ni Ēstimā vaihel ni noide ütidze perändüze tunnismärķ. Sjōl kirotuzel um katș ossa. Edimädzehn ozahn ma selledä lutsi kiele ūŗjide (Oskar Kallas, Heikki Ojansuu, Paulopriit Voolaine, August Sang) mälehüizi ni tähelepandmizi aost, ku tūd kīlt vīl egä päiv kyneldi. Tȳz̦ ehn ozahn tī ülekaehuze Pylda valla Jāni külä Nikonovi perrest, kohn elliq perämädze lutsi kiele myistjaq. Ma ka kynele perämädzist Lutsi inemizist tǟmbädzel pǟväl – nm mälehäjidest –, kiä viļ tīdväq veidüq lutsi kīlt, ni kaq noide elolūst ni kiele tīdmizest.
To discover the essential differences in cultural and linguistic patterns of a certain society, we need to look no further than to the most common relations of all – those between family members. When studying, working and living in, or for instance marrying into another culture, we must not only learn, but also acquire and utilise a whole new set of relationships and terms in order to be able to function and communicate. Without this knowledge we will quickly encounter a multitude of social difficulties in the other environment. On a deeper level, if we follow the assumption that a language is the mirror of its culture, and that language also influences culture, the linguistic terms designating family relations present a number of interesting phenomena, such as: which relations occupy the centre of importance in the society; the concept and understanding of a core family; which family relations are considered “worth” having a term for, and thus meaningful to keep up; the relations after a crisis, for instance a divorce; and several more, including the transfer of family relations to friendship and business contacts.
This qualitative pilot study discusses some important aspects of family relations from the perspectives of Swedish-language (Sweden and Swedish-speakers in Finland) family terminology, in comparison with Serbian and Bulgarian. The study also includes a Serbian-language survey about kinship terms, and it raises questions about further research into cultural and social patterns and connotations reflected in kinship terminology. Social and cultural differences specifically between the Serbian and Swedish spheres are highlighted; the Bulgarian and Swedish-speaking terminologies in Finland are used here mainly as references and for comparative purposes. The study combines different scientific fields in mapping out some aspects of cognitive, social and cultural patterns. It emphasises the importance and necessity of multilingual and multicultural learning instead of foreign language and culture learning, and shows some of the pitfalls and possibilities students of languages and cultures encounter when learning new kinship concepts and terms.
Artikkeli selvittää maantieteen termistön kehittämistä Virossa ja Suomessa 1920-luvulla. Suomalainen maantieteilijä J. G. Granö tuli 1919 Tarttoon perustamaan maantieteen oppituolia. Tämä oli ylipäänsä ensimmäinen kerta, kun maantiedettä alettiin opettaa viroksi, ja hän tarvitsi valtavasti uutta termistöä. Lyhyen Viron-kautensa aikana Granö pyrki luomaan vironkielisen tieteellisen termijärjestelmän ja vahvistamaan opiskelijoiden käsitystä maantieteestä tieteenalana. Hän piti tärkeänä erikoisalan omakielisen termistön hallintaa. Pyrimme hahmottamaan hajanaisesta arkistoja sanastoaineistosta esimerkkejä Granön luomista vironkielisistä termeistä. Oletamme, että J. V. Veskin nimiin kirjatut uudistermit eivät kaikki ole J. V. Veskin luomia vaan termistöjen kehittämiseen osallistuivat myös erikoisalojen asiantuntijat. Kun Granö palasi Suomeen, hän jatkoi termijärjestelmän ja erityisesti maisemamaantieteen kuvausjärjestelmän kehittämistä. Hänen teoreettinen pääteoksensa Puhdas maantiede (1930) yhdistää Virossa ja Suomessa luodut termit ja kuvaustavat. Hän korosti työssään tieteen tekemistä kansallisilla kielillä mutta tulosten tiedottamista myös kansainvälisillä kielillä.
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"Development of geographical terms in Estonia and Finland in the 1920s"
Our article deals with the development of geographical terms in Estonia and in Finland during the 1920’s. This period is especially interesting because the language of instruction in the respective countries changed to Estonian and to Finnish at roughly the same time. The development of scientific terminology in different fields was started on both sides at the same time as well. The Finnish geographer Johannes Gabriel Granö went to Tartu in 1919 to establish a Department of Geography at the University of Tartu. He was the first person to teach geography in Estonian and he needed a vast amount of professional terminology. Previously the teaching languages were German and Russian. During his short stay (3 years), J. G. Granö started developing geographical terminology in Estonian. At the same time, he also made efforts to consolidate the use of new scientific terminology. J. G. Granö established the committee of geographic terminology at Tartu University, but he never published any research in Estonian. The results of J. G. Granö’s work can be found in the different areal studies of Estonia. The main editors of these books were J. G. Granö’s students. The study of the development of Estonian scientific terminology postulates that nearly all new scientific terms were invented by J. V. Veski. We assume that his role was in many areas primarily consulting, not inventing. Many of J. G. Granö’s invented terms are nowadays very common, such as ürgorg,voor, and vallseljak; even many Estonian place names (Soomaa,Lahemaa, Vooremaa) were likely invented by J. G. Granö. Back in Finland, J. G. Granö continued his work on geographical terminology in Finnish. His main theoretical study, Pure Geography (1930), brings together the theoretical basis which was developed in Estonia and practical work done in Finland. J. G. Granö highlighted the importance of doing science in national languages and reporting results in international languages.
Sõna taevas on peetud balti või veel vanemaks indoeuroopa laenuks eesti keeles. Selle laensõnaga väljendati peale taevaruumi ka taevasi ja üleloomulikke-jumalikke nähtusi. Artiklis avame sõna taevas etümoloogilist tausta ning seejärel analüüsime sõna tähendusi ja kasutusmustreid tänapäeva eesti kirjakeeles ja murretes. Näitame, kuidas ruumilises asukoha tähenduses võib sõna taevas olla mõistetud nii objekti, pinna kui ka mahutina. Samuti kõrvutame sõna taevas kasutust sõna jumal kasutustega, osutamaks, et taevas jumala asukohana võimaldab metonüümia KOHT TEGIJA ASEMEL ning sellega sõna taevas mitmekesise kasutuse agendi positsioonis.
Abstract. Ann Veismann, Anni Jürine, Karl Pajusalu, Renate Pajusalu and Ilona Tragel: taevas ‘sky, heaven’ in Estonian. The word taevas in Estonian is considered to be a loan word of Baltic or possibly early Indo-European origin. Taevas has been used to refer to the sky as well as to heaven and heavenly phenomena. This study focuses on the etymology of taevas, and analyses the semantics and collocates of taevas in Estonian dialects and written Estonian. It is demonstrated that, when referring to spatial location, the word taevas may be interpreted as an object, a surface or a container. When taevas is used to refer to heaven, i.e. the location of God in Christianity, the metonymy location for the agent motivates numerous uses where taevas acts as the agent. Such usages are contrasted to usage patterns of Jumal ‘God’.
Keywords: Standard Estonian; Estonian dialects; the word taevas ‘sky, heaven’; language history; semantics; polysemy; metonymy
Ekaterina V. Zakharova, Anna A. Makarova, Irma I. Mullonen
The article presents some results of the expedition aimed at documenting toponymic and lexical substratal data in the Lake Beloye area (Belozerye). The survey was carried out in the summer of 2015 in the south-western part of Belozersky District around Lake Andozero, since it had been suggested that in this area there could exist a boundary separating the zone of substratal toponymy of Baltic-Finnic origin (the nearest Vepsian settlements are located in 70 km from the lake) from the zone of substratal toponymy of Volga-Finnic type (Lake Andozero is situated in the upper reaches of the Andoga River which is a part of the Volga basin). The paper draws particular attention to the toponymic determiners derived from landscape terms of substratal origin. Their number and regularity, as well as their ability to serve as area markers make them the most reliable source for the reconstruction of the substratal language of Belozerye. Some of the analysed determiners (-humuz’, -solovo) are widespread only in the Lake Beloye area and may be associated with local substratal languages, while others (-loida, -pohta) have parallels in the toponymy of Baltic-Finnic type in the north and north-west of Belozerye. Recent researches hypothesized that, before Slavicization, Belozerye could be a part of the area of the southern group of the Baltic-Finnic languages. The combination within one place-name of structures with “Finnish” and “Sami” etymologies (e.g. Vanosmen’, Šundomen’, Kiboj, etc.) suggests the existence of a specific language of Baltic-Finnic-Sami type in the Lake Andozero area. Apparently, this must be a Finno-Ugric language belonging to the western group of the Uralic language family which, on the one hand, did not absorb the substratal language (“Palaeo-European”, for convenience) serving as a marker of the Sami speech, and, on the other hand, did not fully experience the Germanic influence which played an important role in the formation of the Baltic-Finnic and, to some extent, Sami languages.
Kokkuvõte. Artiklis vaadeldakse eesti keele modaalverbi pidama episteemilisi kasutusi võrdluses prantsuse keele modaalverbiga devoir. Episteemiliste kasutuste all on mõeldud juhtumeid, kus pidama ja devoir väljendavad kõneleja hinnangut kirjeldatud situatsiooni toimumise tõenäosusastme kohta. Analüüs tugineb tõlkekorpuse näidetele, milles pidama esineb nii originaal- kui ka tõlketekstides. Tõlkevastete analüüs näitab, et eesti verbi pidama kasutatakse prantsuse verbi devoir vastena episteemilises tähenduses tunduvalt harvemini kui vastupidi. Artikli eesmärk on välja selgitada selle ebasümmeetria põhjused ning tuua välja eesti verbi pidama episteemilise kasutusvälja eripärad võrreldes prantsuse analoogi ja sõnaraamatuvastega. Näidete analüüsi põhjal võib järeldada, et eesti keele verbil pidama on võrreldes verbiga devoir kitsam ulatus episteemilise hinnangu tugevuse skaalal. Verbi devoir indikatiivivormid on palju laiemalt kasutusel situatsiooni suhteliselt madala tõenäosuse väljendamisel. Verbi devoir vorm saab väljendada lisaks situatsiooni ajale ka eitust või situatsiooni aspektilisi omadusi, samas kui verbil pidama on episteemilises kasutuses piiratud vormistik. Tulemused näitavad, et verbide pidama ja devoir evidentsiaalsed omadused on sarnased ning neid ei saa vaadelda korrelatsioonis modaaltähendusega: episteemilise hinnangu tugevus ei sõltu otseselt infoallika subjektiivsusastmest või järelduse muudest omadustest.
Abstract. Anu Treikelder: The epistemic use of the Estonian modal pidama in comparison with the French modal devoir. This article examines the epistemic uses of the Estonian modal verb pidama in comparison with the same type of verb devoir in French. The analysis is based on samples from a parallel corpus of translations in which pidama occurs both in originals and in translations. The general translation data reveal that the Estonian pidama is used as the equivalent of the French verb devoir less often than vice versa. The aim of this article is to find out the reasons of this asymmetry and to point out the peculiarities of the epistemic usage of pidama compared to its French counterpart. The findings of the corpus reveal some differences in the formal aspect of the two verbs: the epistemic devoir can express besides the time of the situation also aspect and it can occur in the negative form. The Estonian verb pidama has a more restricted paradigm in its epistemic uses. More importantly, the results of the study suggest that variations in translation are not merely due to the preferences of translators but that they reveal also differences in the epistemic meaning of these two verbs. The French modal devoir seems to offer a wider range of epistemic uses than its Estonian counterpart: it allows expressing different degrees of likelihood of a state of affairs on the scale from high to rather low probability, while Estonian pidama stays closer to the pole of (very) high probability. On the other hand, the evidential properties, concerning the source and the nature of the inference conveyed by the epistemic meaning of these two verbs, seem to be rather similar. This result seems to prove that epistemic and evidential categories are not directly correlated in the meaning of modal verbs: the strength of the epistemic evaluation does not depend on the reliability of the source of information.
Keywords: modal verbs; epistemic modality; evidentiality; Estonian; French
In the paper, a model of negotiation is developed which includes a model of argument. The topic of negotiation between two participants is an action to be performed by one of them. The initial communicative goals of the participants can match or not. In the first case, they are cooperatively looking for reasons why performing (or not performing) the action is useful, pleasant, etc. In the second case, they are involved in debate. They present arguments and counter-arguments and in the end, one of them will abandon his or her initial communicative goal. An analysis of human- human negotiations is carried out in order to give a preliminary evaluation of the introduced model. A limited version of the model is implemented on the computer.
At present Veps, a Finno-Ugric minority in north-western Russia, live in three different administrative regions, i.e., the Republic of Karelia, and the Leningrad and Vologda Oblasts. Due to several socio-economic and political factors Veps have experienced a drastic change in their communicative practices and ways of speaking in the last century. Indeed, Vepsian heritage language is now classified as severely endangered by UNESCO. Since perestroika a group of Vepsian activists working in Petrozavodsk (Republic of Karelia) has been promoting Vepsian language and culture. This paper aims to challenge an international rhetoric around language endangerment and language death through an analysis of Vepsian language ecology and revitalisation. Vepsian ontologies and communicative practices do not always match detached metaphors of language, which view them as separate entities and often in competition with each other. The efforts to promote the language and how these are discussed among the policy-makers and Vepsian activists also do not concur with such a drastic terminology as death and endangerment. Therefore, this paper aims to bring to the surface local ontologies and worldviews in order to query the paradigms around language shift and language death that dominate worldwide academic and political discourse.
The article examines the relationship between the two prominent forms of Livonian: Salaca Livonian, spoken on the territory of historical Livonia, and Courland Livonian. Salaca Livonian is compared to the two main dialects of Courland Livonian – the eastern and western dialects. Based on the Salaca Livonian data, the article focuses on the comparison of phonological and grammatical features, also presenting a brief comparison of core vocabulary. The form of Livonian spoken in the Salaca River region of northern Latvia differed in several respects from Courland Livonian. Some Salaca Livonian phonological features, grammatical forms and vocabulary differ from all Courland Livonian dialects, while other features are shared between Salaca Livonian and one of the Courland Livonian dialects. Despite the greater geographical distance between them, Salaca Livonian shares more features with the western Courland Livonian dialect. The article attempts to explain these similarities. First, Latvian influence was stronger in the Salaca and western Courland Livonian dialect regions. Second, the peripheral location of these regions favored the preservation of archaic features. Third, the eastern dialect of Courland Livonian has been more innovative in several ways.
Kokkuvõte. Karl Pajusalu: Salatsi liivi vahekorrast kuraliivi murretega. Artiklis vaadeldakse kahe liivi keele põhikuju, ajaloolisel Liivimaal kõneldud Salatsi liivi ja Kuramaa liivi keele vahekorda. Salatsi liivi keelt võrreldakse mõlema Kuramaa liivi keele peamise kujuga – ida- ja läänemurdega. Lähtudes Salatsi liivi ainestikust, keskendutakse iseloomulike häälikuliste ja grammatiliste joonte võrdlusele, mõnevõrra võrreldakse ka põhisõnavara. Põhja- Lätis Salatsi jõe piirkonnas kõneldud liivi keel on erinenud mitmeti Kuramaa liivi keelest. Ühisjoonte kõrval leidub Salatsi vorme ja sõnu, mis erinevad mõlemast kuraliivi peamurdest, mõnikord aga sarnanevad vaid ühega neist. Seejuures on hoolimata suuremast maa-alalisest kaugusest rohkem ühisjooni Salatsi liivi ja Kuramaa liivi läänemurde vahel. Artiklis püütakse leida ka nende sarnasuste põhjusi. Ilmneb, et ühelt poolt on Salatsi ja Kuramaa läänemurde alal olnud tugevam läti keele mõju, teiselt poolt on perifeerne areng soosinud mitmete arhailiste joonte säilimist. Kuraliivi idamurre on olnud mitmeti uuenduslikum.
Märksõnad: liivi keele murded, eesti keel, läti keel, keeleajalugu, keelekontaktid
Kubbõvõttõks. Karl Pajusalu: Salāts līvõ kīel siḑīmõd Kurāmǭ līvõ kīelkõks. Kēra vaņţlõb kǭdtõ līvõ kīel pūojvīțõ – Salāts līvõ kīeldõ ja Kurāmǭ līvõ kīeldõ. Salāts līvõ kīeldõ ītlõb mȯlmõd Kurāmǭ līvõ kīel vīțõd – mǭgõr- ja vežgõrmūrdõdõks. Kēras um pǟažālistõz ītõltõd ilāpierīži fonētiži ja gramatik tǟtõkši, rǭžki ka pūojsõnāvīļļõ. Pūoj-Lețmǭl Salāts joug immõrkouts kȭlbatõd līvõ kēļl um setmiņ tuoisti äbku Kurāmǭ līvõ kēļ. Um ītiži tǟtõkši, bet um ka formidi ja sõņḑi, mis ātõ tuoistizt ku Kurāmǭ līvõ pǟmūrdis agā īdsõ pǟmūrds. Jemīņim um īdvīțiži tǟtõkši Salāts līvõ kīel ja Kurāmǭ līvõ kīel mǭgõrmūrd vail äbvaņțlõs sīe pǟlõ, ku ne ātõ īdtuoizõst kougõn. Kēra vȯtšūb pūojḑi, mikš se nei um. Jagīņ um lețkēļ mȯj vȯnd kangtimi, jaggõld um aigāli kazāndimi äbțõn vȯidõ muinliži tǟtõkši. Kurāmǭ līvõ kīel vežgõrmurd um vȯnd ūdlimi.
Revista Română pentru Studii Baltice şi Nordice / The Romanian Journal of Baltic and Nordic Studies (RRSBN) continues the publication in this issue of a series of studies which have been presented at the annual conference on Baltic and Nordic Studies in Romania. These articles approach topics related to the relations and encounters between Black Sea and the Baltic Sea areas or various developments in the Baltic Sea region during the 20th century. Kari Alenius contributes to this issue with an analysis of the way Romania was presented in the Finnish schoolbooks. As correctly emphasized by the author, this image reflects the perception and attitude of the authors of „ the outside world and diversity”. Alenius identifies four stages in this respect: end of 1800s until the end of the First World War; early years of the 1920s to the 1950s; the 1960s to the 1980s and the last decades since the 1990s. Although each stage emphasized different characteristics of Romania, the author finds also continues among them.
Sari Ahola, Tiina Lammervo, Reeta Neittaanmäki
et al.
<p><span>The purpose of this study was to compare learner outcome when five similar speaking situations were offered in the speaking subtest in Finnish, Swedish and English intermediate level tests in the Finnish National Certificates language testing system. The overall aim was to investigate the tasks by comparing learner outcomes across the three tests and to seek explanations for the outcome in the learners’ selfreported demographic, language, educational and professional background.</span></p><p><span>The speaking situations were selected from the NC item bank meaning that they have undergone the Item Response Theory based analyses which indicate that the tasks function well in all tests. More information was needed to discover possible connections between performance and background information. Performance data and background factors were analysed using descriptive frequency and percent distribution. Cross-tabulation was used to analyse connections between variables. The tasks are discussed in terms of domains and language functions and their connection with the test takers’ background information. Results indicate that though there is some variation in the learner outcomes across languages, situational tasks can be used for different languages.</span></p><p><span><span><span>DOI: http://dx.doi.org/</span>10.5128/ERYa9.01</span><br /></span></p>
<p><span>Artiklis analüüsitakse kahte lugemistesti – sõnaloendi lugemise testi ja sõnade äratundmise testi – võrdlevalt eesti ja soome keeles. Uurimusel on kaks eesmärki: hinnata nimetatud testide eesti- ja soomekeelsete versioonide omavahelist vastavust ja arendada lugemistestide võrdlemise meetodeid. Testide võrdlemisel rakendatakse paralleelselt testide keelelist analüüsi, täiskasvanud lugejate testitulemuste ning laste testisoorituste ja intervjuude analüüsi. Tulemused osutavad nimetatud testide suurele sarnasusele. Teste ei saa siiski pidada identseteks eesti ja soome keeles, seda osalt mõningaste erinevuste tõttu testides endas ning osalt keeleliste iseärasuste tõttu.</span></p><p>DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/ERYa9.18</p>
<p>Õpilase kirjaoskuse edukaks arendamiseks tuleb võtta arvesse teismeliste mitmesuguseid kultuurilisi, lingvistilisi, sotsiaalseid ja emotsionaalseid vajadusi. Teismelised loevad väljaspool kooli eriilmelisi tekste ja on elektrooniliste tekstide lugemises sageli õpetajatest sammu võrra ees, mis toob kaasa vajaduse tunda teismeliste tekstikeskkonda väljaspool kooli. Artikkel tutvustab eestikeelse põhikooli lõpetajate ja 11. klassi õpilaste internetis lugemise mahtu ja laadi vaba aja tegevuste laiemas kontekstis. Statistiline uurimus põhineb 2008.–2009. aastal läbiviidud küsitlusel.</p><p><img src="/ajakirjad/public/site/images/mariamaren/citation_linking_graphic_12x54_white1.png" alt="" /> http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/ERYa7.11</p>
<p>Artiklis käsitletakse sagedasemaid eesti- ja saksakeelsetes küsilausetes esinevaid värvingupartikleid. Näidenditekstidest pärit küsilausete korpuse põhjal võrdleb autor saksa ja eesti keeles esinevate värvingupartiklite (kommunikatiivset) funktsiooni eri liiki küsilausetes. Sagedamini esinevate partiklipaaride <em>doch/ju</em>, <em>gar/-gi, -ki </em>ja <em>denn/siis</em> võrdlemisel tuuakse esile sarnasused ja erinevused värvingupartiklite kasutamisel mõlemas keeles. Ühe aspektina vaadeldakse värvingupartiklite tõlgitavust eesti keelest saksa keelde ja vastupidi. Partiklite kirjeldamise käigus joonistuvad välja kriteeriumid, mida perspektiivis on võimalik partiklite uurimisel aluseks võtta.</p><p>DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/ERYa6.08</p>