By applying the survey method, the article presents and summarizes the theoretical questions of language policy, the language consciousness of students and their attitudes towards the Ukrainian language both before and after the start of the current Russo–Ukrainian war. Students from four universities took part in the survey: Kyiv National Linguistic University, Ivan Franko National University of L'viv, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, and Yuriy Fedkovych National University of Chernivtsi.
Computational linguistics. Natural language processing, Semantics
The article presents partial results from an online survey conducted with a group of expatriates living and working in Poland. The main aim of the study was to examine the attitude of the target group towards learning Polish, and to find the most important motivations for learning it or the reasons for not doing so. This problem has not been thoroughly researched before because expatriates previously were not treated as a separate research group. The results show, however, that they are an interesting object of study; they differ from other types of learners (e.g. academic learners) mostly because of their different motivations and attitudes towards learning Polish. The language profile of the expatriates is particularly noteworthy, especially their multilingualism, although not all are learning Polish. Their motivations to start learning the language, and the reasons for stopping to do so or for not even starting at all despite living in Poland for long time, are also worth exploring.
Computational linguistics. Natural language processing, Semantics
Ольга Владимировна Митренина, Айслу Гиляжевна Мухамбеткалиева
В статье рассматриваются современные метрики оценки качества перевода, которые используются при создании и настройке компьютерных переводчиков, при соревнованиях по машинному переводу, а также при оценке работы некоторых других систем обработки естественного языка. Описываются критерии оценки качества перевода и основные методы экспертной оценки. Рассматриваются принципы работы автоматических метрик (BLEU, TER, METEOR, BERTScore, COMET и др.), их особенности, преимущества и недостатки. Авторы подчеркивают важность появления метрик BERTScore и COMET, а также объясняют популярность некоторых традиционных метрик (например, BLEU). Современные метрики оценки качества перевода дают искаженные результаты в тех случаях, когда текст содержит много выражений с непрямыми значениями: поэтические тропы, метафоры, метонимия, юмор, загадки. Общение с помощью непрямых значений предполагает человеческую способность мыслить противоречиями, они являются источником инсайта, с помощью которого Дональд Дэвидсон описывал действие метафоры, но эта область пока еще плохо поддается компьютерной обработке. Именно поэтому оценка профессиональных переводов художественных текстов с помощью метрик показывает такие низкие результаты. Дальнейшее развитие метрик должно использовать компьютерную обработку противоречий, возможно, с помощью неконсистентных логик: паракомплектной, параконсистентной и диалетической.
Artiklis tutvustatakse Eesti Keele Instituudis (EKI) arendatavaid eesti keele kui teise keele õpet toetavaid ressursse, mis on koondatud keeleportaali Sõnaveeb veebirakendusse Õpetaja Tööriistad. Selle moodulid – sõnavara, grammatika, kasutusolukorrad ja teksti hindamine – moodustavad terviku, pakkudes keeleõpetajatele ja keeleõppega seotud spetsialistidele abi kursuste kavandamisel ning õppematerjalide, harjutusvara ja testide koostamisel.
Metodoloogilise raamistiku loomisel ja keeleoskustasemete määramisel on lähtekohaks Euroopa keeleõppe raamdokument (CEFR 2001, eestikeelne versioon Raamdokument 2007), selle sõsarväljaanded (CEFR/CV 2018, CEFR/CV 2020), Euroopa Nõukogu noorte õppijate tasemekirjeldused vanustele 7–10 (Szabo 2018a) ja 11–15 (Szabo 2018b) ning Eesti-sisesed keeleoskustasemeid puudutavad õigusaktid. Keeleliste andmete allikad on peamiselt aastatel 2018–2020 EKI-s loodud eesti keele kui teise keele õpikute ja õppijakeele korpused.
Artiklis kirjeldatakse tööriistamoodulite loomise ja esituse põhimõtteid, tuuakse välja esile kerkinud probleemid ning võimalikud edasiarendused.
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Estonian as a Second Language Teacher’s Tools in the Institute of Estonian Language’s Language Portal Sõnaveeb
The paper presents the interim results of the project Teacher’s Tools (Õpetaja tööriistad) published as a subpage of the language portal Sõnaveeb. The toolbox includes four modules: vocabulary, grammar, language use situations and text evaluation. The tools are aimed to help second language teachers and specialists plan courses, create new educational materials, exercises and tests.
The methodological framework and CEFR level evaluation for Teacher’s Tools is based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (2001), its Companion Volume with New Descriptors (2018), Collated Representative Samples of Descriptors of Language Competences Developed for Young Learners for Ages 7–10 (Szabo 2018a) and 11–15 (Szabo 2018b) and Estonian legislation on the topic. The methodology is adapted from similar projects for other languages (e. g. Capel 2010, 2012, O’Keeffe, Geraldine 2017, Alfter et al 2019).
In order to gather linguistic data the Institute of Estonian Language compiled Estonian language coursebook and learner’s language corpuses in 2018–2020. First, the textbooks were studied for creating wordlists and analysis of explicit grammar teaching. Second, the results were validated by experts and compared to the wordlists created on the basis of learners’ texts.
The vocabulary and grammar modules represent CEFR-based lexical and grammar profiles for learners of Estonian as a Second Language. The lexical profile covers both young (preA1–B2) and adult (A1–C1) learners, the grammar profile the young learners (pre A1–B2). The text evaluation module runs on morphological analyser estNLTK v 1.6 and marks lemmas in texts according to their CEFR-assignment in vocabulary profile. The language use situation module is mainly based on the descriptors for young learners (Szabo 2018a, 2018b) and is to offer information about the typical situations where the learner should be able to communicate.
The urgency of the article is due to new requirements for the structure and content of a dictionary entry in the theory of modern lexicography and the need to increase the semantic capacity of the interpretation of meaning by including restrictive information. At the same time, the issue of restrictive components in lexicographic practice has not been finally resolved; however, many modern ideas can already be traced in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. I. Dahl. The methodology of the study is based on the analysis of various types of fragments of a dictionary entry, presenting lexicographically significant information that cannot be deduced directly from the lexical semantics, but is significant for the correct use of the word. The article highlights the types of restrictive components presented in the dictionary. Language restrictions can be due to the language system, norm or usus. Restrictions by the system fix special types of bound meanings and reflect the reasons for the appearance of such meanings as means of secondary nomination. Restrictions by the norm fix the existence of stylistically colored meanings and set the conditions for their use. Among the systemic restrictions of Dahl’s dictionary, there are morphological restrictions, which fix the obligatory forms of syntagmatically related words by means of generalizing pronouns; syntactic restrictions accompanying syntactically bound meanings with an indication of the corresponding conditions of use; lexical restrictions outlining a list of context partners, in combination with which the interpreted meaning is realized. Restrictions of the object- logical content of a word do not affect the change in meaning in terms of marking or dependence; they fully depend on the process of categorization, by the peculiarities of delimitating certain areas of reality by this language. The extra-linguistic factor underlies the restrictions of the situational context, which verbalize information of an encyclopedic nature in the dictionary: historical, social, cultural, ideological. Restrictions of pragmatic nature are represented in the dictionary by a wide variety of emotional-expressive and functional-stylistic marks, as well as marks and comments that characterize the social differentiation of the language. A special place is occupied by restrictions that translate communicatively meaningful information about the asymmetry of social roles.
hashemi seyyed ghadir, SEYYED Mohammad Razavi, mohammad reza Aram
The study of the words of the Qur'an is one of the basic pillars of understanding the concepts and purposes of the Qur'an, which has been studied from different perspectives and dimensions and at different levels. In the interpretive narrations of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) - as the true interpreters of the Qur'an - lexicography has also been highly regarded and various analyzes of these holy essences (AS) have been issued. The present article, considering the importance of the term research, by collecting relevant data from interpretive narrations and describing and analyzing these data, deals with their typology and expresses the obtained types in the following topics: Explanation The apparent meaning of the word, synonymy in expressing the primitive meaning of words, expression of nouns, lexicography, explanation of the virtual meaning of words, expression of instances of words, expression of the meaning of opposing words, syntactic analysis of words, explanation of words in different readings, word Cultural-minded exploration and expression of the ventricular and interpretive meanings of words. Although these interpretive narrations help in explaining the meaning of words, but some of them are weak in terms of signification, and in using them, one should pay attention to the criteria of textual critique, such as offering to the Qur'an, and so on.
The dynamics of understanding lexical sets in theoretical and practical aspects over the past 50 years is provided, highlighting the main stages of their identification, study and interpretation features in the light of various scientific approaches: structural-semantic, functional-linguistic, cognitive-discourse, lexicographic, determining the system of principles of their identification, formation of the composition and description of the structural organization. The results of a multidimensional study of lexical sets of different types as an integral dynamic system, that have received multiple interpretations both in theoretical research and in ideographic dictionaries, are presented. The following types of sets are considered: lexical-semantic, functional-lexical, denotative-ideographic, semantic-syntactic, complex lexical-phraseological, synonymous-antonymic, conceptual-discursive. The research is carried out on the material of ideographic dictionaries created by lexicographers of the Ural Semantic School. Examples of descriptions of linguistic and speech sets with emotive semantics presented in a series of these dictionaries are used as illustrative material. The study showed that over half a century, lexical set theory has advanced significantly due to the situation of polyparadigmality in linguistics. It is noted that in such circumstances, different approaches to the study of sets of language and speech units were formed, the identification of fundamentally new semantic associations was substantiated, their typology was developed, the sources, factors and principles of their formation were characterized.
Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
The aim of this article is to review the standard dictionaries of Old English from the perspective of the evolution from traditional lexicography to electronic lexicography and to fnd the similarities and diferences, together with their pros and cons. The ultimate purpose is to fnd which of these four dictionaries is more suitable for linguistic research in Old English for scholars in the feld. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (Bosworth and Toller in Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1973), The Student’s Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon (Sweet in Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976), A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (Hall in University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1996) and The Dictionary of Old English in Electronic Form A–G (Healey et al. in Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, 2008) are examined with respect to headwords, alternative spellings and cross-references, vowel quantity and textual evidence.
The Afrikaanse idiome-woordeboek is a prototype e-dictionary of Afrikaans fixed expressions developed with the intention to test the functionalities of the e-dictionary. This dictionary is based on the function theory of lexicography. The e-dictionary makes use of various technologies. When digital tools are developed it is important to consider the usability of the tool. Usability evaluation was done on the Afrikaanse idiome-woordeboek to determine with what success it can be used. Discount usability methods, viz. heuristic evaluation and usability testing were used. This article reports on the findings from the usability tests which are discussed under the categories of content, information architecture, navigation, access (searching and browsing), help, customisation and the use of innovative technologies to manage data in e-dictionaries for search and display. The usability evaluation showed that the users did not always use the e-dictionary as the designers intended. Various recommendations are made to the designers of the Afrikaanse idiome-woordeboek, as well as for the design of e-dictionaries in general. Recommendations appropriate to e-dictionaries in general are made regarding usability evaluation, information architecture, searching in e-dictionaries, the data that can be included in e-dictionaries and training of users of e-dictionaries.
Philology. Linguistics, Languages and literature of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania
The paper discusses the integration of presenting theoretical linguocultural knowledge and developing dictionary skills in advanced students of a foreign language. The proposed approach allows showing students the interdisciplinary character of various issues, one of which is cross-linguistic lacunarity. It is given as an example of a phenomenon, whose introduction can be combined with the development of students’ dictionary use abilities. Lacunarity consists in the lack of some source language elements in the target language. Two main kinds of lacunae are distinguished: linguistic and referential ones. The focal issue of the paper is how the information on the lacunary character of words can be presented to advanced students of English as a foreign language, in this paper Polish learners, so that they could consider the phenomenon in terms of bilingual lexicography: first, becoming aware of the specifics of their description; second, practising their dictionary skills by analysing entries for selected lacunary lexical and phraseological units; third, combining the information and skills in doing creative tasks, related to lacunarity and its bilingual lexicographic descriptions. Furthermore, additional activities are proposed for revising the acquired knowledge on lacunarity and advancing dictionary use. Offering students tasks, which require them to adopt a different perspective, aims to increase their involvement in the learning process and to foster their autonomy as learners. Encouraging learners to reflect on lacunae and their lexicographic description is expected to familiarize them with the phenomenon and simultaneously to develop their dictionary skills by doing especially designed activities.
U članku se govori o smrti pape Pija X. i o konklavi iz 1914. u kojoj je izabran njegov nasljednik Benedikt XV., pri čemu se ti događaji stavljaju u kontekst početka Prvoga svjetskoga rata. Iznose se činjenice koje svjedoče da je Pio X. predviđao ratni sukob u Europi, a potom se opisuju njegove reakcije i stajališta u predvečerje i neposredno nakon početka Prvoga svjetskoga rata. Osobito se naglašava kako je početak rata porazno djelovao na Pija X., koji je preminuo ni mjesec dana nakon početka rata. Nakon kratkoga prikaza novih pravila za održavanje konklava, što ih je propisao upravo Pio X., iznose se podatci o održavanju općih kongregacija kardinala prije početka konklave i podatci o trima najizglednijim kandidatima za novoga papu, pri čemu se posebno naglašavaju čimbenici koji su utjecali na raspoloženje i stajališta kardinala. Nakon sažetih podataka o sudionicima konklave, iznosi se njezin tijek s detaljnim podatcima o glasovanju u svim izbornim krugovima, o sukobima među kardinalima i o izboru novoga pape, koji je uzeo ime Benedikt XV. Na kraju se iznose prve geste i prve mirovne poruke novoga pape.
This paper supports the argument that a dictionary of Economics in the broad sense of the word is any information tool that contains structured data - e.g. dictionary articles, outer texts, hyperlinks, etc. – which can be used for retrieving information on economic concepts, economic language, economic instructions, and/or economic operations. Some of these are on the Internet and are accessed by individuals for concrete consultation in one or more situations. This definition is based on the tenets of the Function Theory of Lexicography, the theoretical construction initiated at the Aarhus School of Business in the 1990s which has since worked on the theory and practice of dictionaries (Bergenholtz/Tarp 2002, 2003, 2004; Tarp 2008; Fuertes-Olivera/Tarp 2014). This has resulted in a specific approach to dictionary making, which is identifi ed in this chapter as a lexicography-based approach. On the other hand, some scholars espouse a different view, which is basically rooted in the theories and methods of (Applied) Linguistics (Rundell 2012a) and identified here as a linguistics-based approach. Both views are discussed and illustrated in relation to three specific issues: (a) the concept of a dictionary of Economics; (b) the sources of lexicographic data used in different dictionaries of Economics; (c) access to data and data presentation in several online dictionaries of Economics.
Business communication. Including business report writing, business correspondence
Sözlükbilimi teriminin yorumlanması söz konusu olduğunda terimin yapısı, genişliği ve kapsamıyla ilgili pek çok görüş ortaya çıkmaktadır. Yaygın görüşe göre sözlükbilimin, uygulamalı sözlükbilimi (practical lexicography) ve sözlükbilimsel uygulama (lexicographic practice) olmak üzere iki bileşenden meydana geldiği kabul edilse de sözlükbilimin farklı tanımları bu ayrım ve özgün bileşenlerinin hiçbir zaman tam bir açıklamasını vermemektedir. Bu yazıda sözlükbilimi sözcüğünün yaygın ve ana tanım olarak kabul edilen yorumları ele alınacaktır. Ardından bu kavramın dönüştürücü, birleştirici ve kapsamlı yorumları incelenecektir.
<p><strong>Resumo</strong>: O presente trabalho tem por objetivo contrastar a constituição interna de verbetes de dicionários escolares Tipo 2. A inclusão dos dicionários escolares de língua portuguesa ao Programa Nacional do Livro Didático ampliou as discussões sobre este tipo de obra lexicográfica, o que culminou em um aprimoramento dos dicionários escolares nos últimos dez anos. No entanto, por ser uma prática incipiente no Brasil, a pesquisa lexicográfica brasileira ainda carece de diretrizes que norteiem a compilação de dicionários escolares de excelência. Desta forma, embora compiladas sob diretrizes fixadas pelo Ministério da Educação, as obras disponíveis no mercado ainda apresentam características muito heterogêneas quando comparadas umas às outras. Neste trabalho, procuramos contrastar as informações oferecidas nos verbetes de três dicionários Tipo 2 de modo a chamar a atenção para a necessidade de um estudo que consolide um Programa Constante de Informações para estas obras lexicográficas.<br /> <strong>Palavras-chave</strong>: Lexicografia pedagógica; dicionários escolares; Programa Constante de Informações. <strong></strong></p><p><strong>Abstract</strong>: This paper aims to contrast the internal formation of entries in Type-2 school dictionaries. The inclusion of Portuguese school dictionaries in the Programa Nacional do Livro Didático [“Brazilian Textbook National Program”] has enhanced the discussions about this kind of dictionary, improving the compiling of school dictionaries in the last decade. However, lexicographical research in Brazil is still very incipient and it has not yet established guidelines that assure the compilation of high quality school dictionaries. Consequently, despite being compiled according to parameters fixed by the Ministry of Education, school dictionaries still present heterogeneous features when compared to each other. In this paper, we contrast the information presented by entries of three Type-2 dictionaries, and we draw the attention to the need of a study that consolidates a Constant Program of Information to this sort of dictionary.<br /> <strong>Keywords</strong>: Pedagogical lexicography; school dictionaries; Constant Information Program.</p>
Od svojega osnutka 1980. do danas Filozofska istraživanja potvrđuju se ne kao časopis u uobičajenom smislu riječi koji pripada nekoj školi ili nekom filozofijskom pokretu, već kao obuhvatni i vremenom krajnje razgranati »projekt«, koji od 1986. izdaje međunarodno izdanje Synthesis philosophica, od 1988. niz Biblioteka Filozofska istraživanja itd. Pritom su sve dosadašnje redakcije težile principima potpune otvorenosti, ideologijske i školi primjerene bespredrasudnosti, suradnje i potpunoga sporazumijevanja. Na tom su projektu surađivale gotove sve starije i mlađe generacije, što je stvorilo plodno i razumijevanjem ispunjeno tlo za suradnju najrazličitijih filozofijskih smjerova koji su danas, osim Filozofskoga fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, zastupljeni na novoosnovanim katedrama na Filozofski fakultet DI i Hrvatskim studijima u Zagrebu, u Rijeci, Splitu i Osijeku, pa su Filozofska istraživanja imala i snažnu odgojnu i samoodgojnu funkciju. U drugom dijelu ovoga priloga autor kroz sadržajnu analizu pojedinih, do br. 120 objavljenih tematskih blokova pokušava pokazati da zbilja nema nikoje filozofijske discipline ili one koja se tiče same filozofije koja nije bila uzeta u razmatranje u Filozofskim istraživanjima.
This article proposes a lexicographical approach to the compilation of multilingual concept literacy glossaries which may play a very important role in supporting students at institutions of higher education. In order to support concept literacy, especially for students for whom English is not the native language, a number of universities in South Africa are compiling multilingual glossaries through which the use of languages other than English may be employed as auxiliary media. Terminologies in languages other than English are developed by translating English terms or coining new terms in these languages to exploit the native language competence of most students. The glossary project at the University of Cape Town (UCT) which was conceived under the auspices of the Multilingualism Education Project (MEP) is discussed. It is shown that the UCT glossaries are compiled using methods consistent with those employed in modern lexicography or proffered in lexicographical theory. The lexicographical function theory is specifically used to account for the glossaries and their production. It is suggested that modern lexicography can provide useful guidance for the production of glossaries, given that the earliest glossaries constitute the humble beginnings of lexicography.
Philology. Linguistics, Languages and literature of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania
The Treatment of Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions in Afrikaans Dictionaries. Prompted by the discrepancy between the needs for lexicographic assistance with regard to conjunctions and the relative indifference concerning this in lexicographic research and practice, this study attempts to indicate the unsatisfactory treatment of conjunctions in Afrikaans dictionaries and to offer some constructive lexicographic solutions to the treatment of this part of speech category. A first recommendation would be that the lemmata voegwoord (conjunction), verbindingswoord (connective), neweskikker (coordinating conjunction), onderskikker (subordinating conjunction) and voegende bywoord (conjunctional adverb) provide more in-depth syntactic information with enough examples (also across sentence boundaries). There should be cross-references from the specific conjunction lemmata to these lemmata. The examples provided should indicate typical lexical and grammatical patterns and whether only hypotactic binding is possible or whether incorporation is also possible. In learners’ dictionaries the typical lexical patterns can be in bold print. Care should be taken in inclusive dictionaries, like WAT, to promote faster information retrieval and lexicographers should not equate functions with polysemous meaning distinctions, e.g. there should be two lemmata for of as it is a homonym which clearly requires separate lemmata.
Philology. Linguistics, Languages and literature of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania
<p>Abstract: The ideophone, a word class not unique to but highly characteristic of the Bantu languages, presents particular challenges in both monolingual and bilingual lexicography. Not only is this part of speech without a counterpart in most other languages, the meaning of ideophones is highly elusive. In this research article these challenges are studied by means of an analysis of the treatment of ideophones in a corpus-driven Zulu–English school dictionary project.</p><p>Keywords: LEXICOGRAPHY, DICTIONARY, BILINGUAL, CORPUS, FREQUENCY, BANTU, ZULU (ISIZULU), ENGLISH, IDEOPHONE, SEMANTIC IMPORT, PARAPHRASE, PART-OF-SPEECH MISMATCH</p><p>Samenvatting: De lexicografische behandeling van ideofonen in Zoeloe. De ideofoon, een woordklasse die niet uniek maar wel heel karakteristiek is voor de Bantoetalen, is een echte uitdaging in zowel de monolinguale als bilinguale lexicografie. Niet enkel heeft deze woordklasse geen equivalent in de meeste andere talen, de betekenis van ideofonen is heel moeilijk vast te leggen. In dit onderzoeksartikel worden deze uitdagingen onderzocht aan de hand van een analyse van de behandeling van ideofonen in een corpus-gedreven Zoeloe–Engels schoolwoorden-boekproject.</p><p>Sleutelwoorden: LEXICOGRAFIE, WOORDENBOEK, TWEETALIG, CORPUS, FRE-QUENTIE, BANTOE, ZOELOE, ENGELS, IDEOFOON, SEMANTISCHE LADING, PARAFRASE, VLOEKENDE WOORDKLASSEN</p>
Philology. Linguistics, Languages and literature of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania