Pakistan’s economy is transitioning from crisis to stability, necessitating the alignment of public service sectors like Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management with the country’s economic conditions. By leveraging discrete mathematics and logical frameworks, this study identifies the potential of the waste sector to reduce public expenditure and contribute to economic sustainability. The proposed Wasteism Hierarchy Approach (WHA) offers policy guidelines across waste hierarchy levels to aid decision-making for municipalities, waste management companies, and local governments. Key considerations include the interplay of waste collection modes, fleet management, infrastructure, and catchment areas. Additionally, a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) framework ranks and prioritizes feasible MSW treatment and disposal options. This research highlights the integration of the waste sector into the circular economy and its potential to address climate change, promote regenerative agriculture, and support local economic sustainability.
The number of plastic and polymer types are tremendously numerous. At the present time, they fulfill a lot of daily citizen’s needs and economical interests. They appear to be irreplaceable, but they raise questions. The paper is not a case study nor an experimental study but a viewpoint on the fate of plastics. Their situation and evolution are presented in the form of questions where actors and ‘spheres’ correspond to different visions. ‘Spheres’ are industry, ecosystems, waste management, innovation, technologies and citizens. Statistics predict a growing production and consumption of plastics. Thus a dilemma arises between environment and health protection, the well being of citizens, the will of authorities, the will and ability of manufacturers/producers to supply better ‘products’, and the willingness of citizens to change their habits and behaviors towards less plastics.Against overuse and pollution, plastic recycling is stopgap, a subterfuge. Recycling of all fossile-based plastics is an illusion. Bioplastics are very partial substitutes for fossil-based plastics. The future of plastics deals as much as with behaviors, habits and wills rather than materials themselves. A true decrease in the plastics consumption, firstly those used in packaging, is a long-term solution. But, according to most data and figures, fossile synthetic plastics will be produced and used for decades.
Guilherme Sgobbi Zagui, Lisandro Simão, Danielma Silva Maia
et al.
Sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer in agriculture, representing an environmentally and economically advantageous alternative to disposal in landfills and incinerators, however helminth eggs compromises its destination. In this study, we evaluated helminth eggs in raw and treated sewage sludge after thermal drying in an agricultural greenhouse, from two wastewater treatment plants (namely WWTP-A and WWTP-B), in intention of verifying a low-cost treatment technology to obtain treated sewage sludge for agricultural purposes. Helminths eggs of Hymenolepis diminuta and Ascaris sp were the most frequent. In the sludge from WWTP-A the mean concentration of helminth eggs, respectively, was 3.49 ± 1.45 and 1.01 ± 1.13 eggs/g TS in the raw and treated sludge (p = 0.0382). In WWTP-B, the mean concentration of helminth eggs was 8.14 ± 1.28 and 2.33 ± 3.81 eggs/g TS, respectively, in the raw and treated sludge (p = 0.0495). The maximum percentages of egg removal were 93.81 % in WWTP-A and 98.80 % in WWTP-B. No viable eggs were detected in treated sewage sludge, indicating that the biosolid could be classified as Class A under legal parasitological parameters, allowing for extensive use in agricultural crops, which represents a sustainable alternative for the disposal of sewage sludge.
Nirmal Roy, Latifah Abd Manaf, Abu Hanifah Mohammad Ramli
Rapid urbanisation and population growth in Dhaka have exacerbated the challenges of municipal solid waste (MSW) management. While technical solutions and policies exist, their effectiveness is frequently undermined by socio-cultural barriers that shape how communities perceive, engage with, and act on waste management initiatives. This study systematically analyses the socio-cultural factors influencing MSW management in Dhaka, guided by the Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) framework, and compares these with international experiences to identify strategies for sustainable and inclusive waste management. Following PRISMA guidelines, peer-reviewed articles were systematically collected, screened, and synthesised. The review categorised findings into major factors and sub-factors, drawing on evidence from diverse geographic contexts to highlight parallels and contrasts with Dhaka. The analysis shows that although awareness of sustainable waste practices is relatively high, behavioural adoption remains constrained by cultural stigma, insufficient infrastructure, gender-based exclusion from decision-making, and the inadequate integration of grassroots workers, particularly women and informal waste collectors and recyclers who operate outside the formal system. Comparative evidence from other countries proves that targeted education, incentives, community leadership, and inclusive infrastructure significantly advance participation and waste segregation. Strengthening Dhaka’s waste management requires interventions beyond technology and regulation, embedding behavioural transformation strategies into policy and practice. Culturally tailored awareness campaigns, gender-inclusive programmes, and multi-stakeholder engagement are important to build public trust, enhance participation, and accomplish the city’s sustainability goals.
Understanding the connection between solid waste and sanitation is crucial for improving both systems. This exploratory case study is the first to examine the type and amount of solid waste in onsite sanitation systems, the reasons behind these practices, their impact, and potential prevention methods, across various stakeholders. The study was conducted in two municipal divisions of Kampala, Uganda (Kawempe and Makindye). Solid waste from 19 shared sanitation systems was collected, dried, classified, and quantified during emptying. Interviews were conducted with 20 emptiers, 40 users (20 male, 20 female), and 16 key informants (all male). Most solid waste found in pit latrines and septic tanks was classified as “taboo” waste—items hidden due to social, cultural, or religious reasons. The reasons given for disposing of solid waste in these systems supports previous hypotheses which had remained unexplored. This study generated new hypotheses, particularly emphasizing the role of “taboo” waste, due to its comprehensive methodology. Findings highlight the need for sanitation and waste management sectors to address “taboo” waste specifically rather than general solid waste. Additionally, no stakeholders had considered the complex relationship between these systems, yet an integrated approach is essential for sustainable solutions. These novel insights are critical for solid waste and sanitation specialists worldwide, emphasizing the importance of addressing hidden waste disposal behaviours to improve system efficiency and sustainability.
Plant Jiaosu, referred to as “enzyme” over the past decades, constitutes the fermentation liquid derived from organic plant matter through fermentation. Circular agriculture is a type of agricultural production mode characterized by efficient resource utilization and environmental friendliness. This paper introduces a novel, low-cost, and easy-to-operate circular agriculture model, known as the “fruit and vegetable waste–agricultural Jiaosu–compost–crop”. The results showed that the addition of agricultural Jiaosu during the composting process prolonged the thermophilic stage, promoted the humification degree of compost, and reduced nitrogen loss. As demonstrated in this study, using compost made from agricultural Jiaosu and organic wastes could replace the commercial organic fertilizer in traditional cultivation of grapes. This would promote the growth of grapes, improve yield, and enhance grape quality. This substitution directly and indirectly resulted in an increase of 1400 yuan per 666.7 m2 of grape planting area. This circular agriculture model will ensure the rapid utilization of organic wastes in rural areas and improve the rural environment.
Abdallah Assouani, Abdelkader Dabagh, Mohamed EL-Habacha
et al.
This paper discusses the adsorption mechanism of nitrate ions using natural clay from an aqueous solution. The adsorbent’s heterogeneous structure with deep voids and significant porosity was also seen under the scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This structure is assumed to be essential for binding and collecting nitrate ions onto the adsorbent surface. Different functional groups have been identified to facilitate the adsorption of nitrate ions onto adsorbent. The Brunauer Emmett et Teller (BET) surface examination revealed that the natural raw clay (NRC) surface is around 6.44 m2/g. With a 98 % correlation coefficient, the Langmuir isotherm is the most appropriate model to explain the adsorption process. 241.18 mg/g was the maximum adsorption capacity for nitrate ions at 291 K. The pseudo second-order model represents a good explanation of adsorption kinetics. According to thermodynamic calculations, adsorption occurs spontaneously and exothermically on natural clay. The natural clay was recycled; the removal of nitrates was 42.08 % after the third cycle.The results of Taguchi experimental design (TED), analysis of variance (ANOVA), and response surface methodology (RSM) showed that initial concentration, contact time, and pH are the most significant factors influencing the efficiency of removal with a contribution of 76.96 %, 11.29 %, and 4.3 %, respectively. The maximum removal efficiency of nitrate ions in optimal operating conditions was 82.67 %. Which at the optimal conditions of 0.5 g/L, 360 min, 1000 mg/L, 18 °C, pH 4 for nitrate ions. The results confirm the effectiveness of natural clay in lentil seed germination and nitrate removal from water.
Low biodegradability wastewater greatly restricts biogas production in co-digestion with food wastes in anaerobic digestion operations. This review critically addresses the impact of low biodegradability wastewater on biogas yield, process kinetics, and stability. Low biodegradability wastewaters consist of recalcitrant complex organics that inhibit microbial degradation, leading to reduced methane yield and increased lag times. Additionally, inhibitory substances such as volatile fatty acids and ammonia buildup lead to process destabilization. The review summarizes current research on the detrimental effects and discusses augmentation methods such as mechanical, chemical, and biological pretreatment processes that enhance substrates’ biodegradability. Besides, co-digestion methods of low and high biodegradability substrates are presented as viable options to nutrient balancing, inhibitor reduction, and microbial activity promotion. Process optimization and microorganism enrichment also enhance enhanced methane production and system stability. This comprehensive review demonstrates both the issue brought about by low biodegradability wastewater and effective solutions to rectify them, presenting practical information to maximize biogas production from mixed waste streams for sustainable waste-to-energy conversion.
Sludge drying is an important pretreatment step for municipal dewatered sludge (MDS) treatment and disposal, but the time-consuming and high cost of existing processes have hindered the development of MDS treatment and disposal. In this study, a novel sludge drying technology was proposed on the basis of the characteristics and treatment needs of MDS in China. Pig manure (PM) addition and multisource heat assistance together assisted hyperthermophilic bacteria in achieving rapid drying of MDS. Mechanical factors were optimized via orthogonal experiments, and the optimum PM addition ratio was determined. The relationship between energy input (generation) and output in the system was explored to reveal the reasons why the novel drying technology exhibited superiority. Compared with the traditional biological drying technique and the thermal drying technique, the novel technique has the advantages of high efficiency, time savings and low cost. After 24 h of drying, the moisture content, organic matter content and net calorific value on an air-dried basis (Qnet, V,Mad) of the dried products were 31.43 ± 0.91 %, 72.47 ± 1.89 % and 16.94 ± 0.35 MJ/kg, respectively, which met the requirements of heat recovery and utilization for subsequent thermal treatment. The energy input (generation) to the system exceeded the energy output, indicating that the drying process was positively spontaneous. Multisource heat assistance accounted for 81.6 % of the total generated (input) energy, and 86.43 % of the energy was used for moisture evaporation, indicating high energy utilization of the drying system. In addition, cost savings of US $11.46–16.84/ton (¥83-122.10/ton) were achieved when MDS was treated via the novel drying technology. Overall, the novel drying technology proposed in this study provides feasible, efficient and cost-saving pretreatment technology and ideas for MDS treatment and disposal engineering.
This thesis concerns the controller reduction for nonlinear systems with dynamic output feedback controllers. Using the concept of nonlinear balancing, algorithms to reduce controller order are proposed. The balancing involves a series of state coordinates transformations in which the contribution to controllability by each state is measured by a singular value function and this singular value function also indicates the contribution to observability by the same state. By truncating states associate with smaller singular value functions, the order of the controller is reduced. In the case when controller is stable, controller reduction is extended from model reduction. The discussion for unstable controller reduction focuses on H[infinity] suboptimal output feedback controller and other controllers that employ observer-based structures. An unstable controller is reconstructed based on its stable left (right) coprime factorization, so that the above controller reduction technique can be applied. Four such algorithms are proposed. It is essential that a reduced controller still stabilizes the closed system and does not significantly degrade performance. Three of the five reduction approaches are evaluated with respect to stability and H[infinity] performance. Using small-gain theorem, it is found, in each of the three cases, that when the error between the full order and the reduced controllers has an L2-gain less than certain value as determined by singular value functions in balancing, the closed-loop stability is guaranteed. The above finding is used to choose the order r of the reduced controller to ensure stability. As a measure of the degradation in performance, a formula has been derived to compute the increase in the disturbance attenuation level. The increase is smaller if less states are truncated. Computational issues for balancing reduction are discussed. The impact of approximate controllability and observability functions on balancing and reduction is investigated. Another issue discussed is the construction of the diffeomorphism in balancing controllability and observability functions.
Chidiebele E.J. Uzoagba, Edmund Okoroigwe, Marzieh Kadivar
et al.
One of the approaches for increasing the contribution of biomass to the renewable energy mix is the valorization of biomass to bioenergy. Evaluating the potential of unconventional biomass sources could significantly accelerate the assessment for suitability as feedstock for bioenergy production as a sustainable solution. The study aimed to characterize the Prosopis africana biomass of wood, barks, leaves, and pods towards providing valuable data for scaling up and incorporating these materials into the bioenergy crop database. Characterizations of wood, leaves, barks, and pod wastes from Prosopis africana biomass were investigated based on the proximate, ultimate, and compositional analysis of pulverized samples of the PA biomass to determine their physical, thermal, and chemical properties towards assessing their potential for valorization to bioenergy. The lignocellulosic materials were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and X-ray diffraction. The results show that the pulverized sample wastes have porous structures with varying degrees of crystallinity (wood: 89.20 %, bark: 23.90 %, leaves: 32.48 %, pods: 23.08 %), suggesting different susceptibilities to conversion processes. Notably, the wood sample had the lowest moisture content (3.13 %), and the pod sample had the highest volatile matter content (75.83 %), indicating a high potential for biofuel production. The higher heating values (HHV) and lower heating values (LHV) of the samples ranged from 15.23 to 20.49 MJ/kg and 13.83 to 18.79 MJ/kg, respectively. These calorific values are competitive with established lignocellulosic bioenergy feedstocks, positioning PA biomass as promising candidates for solid biofuel applications.
Catarina Miranda, Paula M.L. Castro, Catarina L. Amorim
Seawater intrusion in coastal regions can alter the wastewater composition, threatening the microbial communities in wastewater treatment processes. An aerobic granular sludge (AGS) system was challenged by fluctuations in wastewater salinity levels promoted by seawater intrusion events for 286 days, divided into two stages. During stage I, the seawater content in wastewater increased stepwise, and over stage II the seawater content in wastewater oscillated throughout the day. Most of the time, the AGS effectively removed COD during the anaerobic phase, regardless of the wastewater salt content. Ammonium removal was slightly unstable (ca. 75 ± 19 %) during stage I, with nitrite release in the effluent. Over stage II, the ammonium content in the wastewater was fully removed. The nitrite content in the effluent decreased, and nitrate became the main nitrogen form released. Phosphate removal was quite unstable at the beginning, improving over time with complete removal achieved during stage II (ca. 98.4 ± 1.1 %). Taxa involved in nitrogen and phosphorous removal were identified in the AGS microbiome at both stages but with superior abundance in the latter stage. A diverse core microbiome, mainly composed of extracellular polymeric substances-producing bacteria (Thauera, Flavobacterium, Paracoccus) and denitrifying bacteria (Thiotrix, Azoarcus, Aequorivita) was identified in stage II. The AGS system efficiently managed daily oscillating seawater levels in wastewater, corroborated by the effective removal performance that seemed to be sustained by an adaptable AGS microbiome.
Broad-spectrum antibiotic, major veterinary medicines, due to large consumption and inappropriate disposal contribute a major part in generation of pharmaceutical pollutants in aquatic environment. The study investigates the interaction of nanometal oxides for adsorption and desorption of Fluoroquinolone antibiotic, ofloxacin hydrochloride from aqueous solution using vertical and sequential bed adsorption columns: designing parameters of adsorption column determined using bed depth service time model. To optimize the continuous flow column adsorption, varying initial drug concentration and flow rates have been studied using ZnO and CuO nanoparticles at pH 4, already determined for optimized batch studies. To access the characteristic behaviour of breakthrough curves, Thomas model and Yoon-Nelson models have been studied, which were in good agreement with experimental data. Sequential bed column shows slightly better results than vertical bed column as the sequential bed is simple and economical, the solution flows in continuous manner under gravity without any mechanical devices and come into contact with fresh adsorbent bed having same amount as that in vertical bed. Therefore sequential bed column can consider in small scale industries for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment. Column desorption experiments have also been carried out by using HCl/NaOH as desorbing agent for the regeneration of drug loaded adsorbent column.
A major obstacle to sustainable city growth in the context of growing urbanization is efficient wastewater treatment. This study analyzes the current wastewater concerns, with a focus on Saharanpur, a class-II city facing unique challenges because of its limited infrastructure. It emphasizes the repercussions on the environment and human health as well as the lack of suitable healthcare and infrastructure. Incorporating design considerations, treatment methodologies, and resource recovery strategies, the research suggests a customized wastewater treatment framework for Class-II cities. In order to overcome both financial and cultural barriers, the decentralized sewage treatment plants (STPs) employ a staged approach that involves stakeholder engagement. The results provide innovative ideas and useful insights to manage sewage difficulties, underscoring the city's pressing need for increased environmental resilience and wastewater sustainability. Predicted sewage generation data over time horizons in key zones (Praduman Nagar, Nazirpura & Badshapur) emphasize the need for timely interventions and offer Class-II cities a comprehensive plan to enhance their wastewater management in the face of urban growth.
David B. Olawade, Ojima Z. Wada, Odunayo T. Ore
et al.
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted global waste management, highlighting the need for adaptable practices. Health and safety took precedence over environmental concerns, resulting in significant shifts in municipal solid waste management. The increased use of personal protective equipment (PPE) like masks and gloves led to a surge in plastic and fiber waste. Changes in consumer behavior, such as online shopping and food delivery, also contributed to higher household waste. Improper waste management posed secondary transmission risks. Healthcare waste, generated in hospitals and quarantine centers, correlated with rising COVID-19 infections. Inadequate practices, including traditional open incineration, exposed communities to toxins. This review examines waste management trends in hospitals and households across various regions during the pandemic. It also discusses waste collectors' challenges and strategies for achieving zero waste. Findings from this study showed that the pandemic's impact on municipal solid waste generation varied across regions, influenced by economic factors. Low-income countries generated less waste per capita than high-income countries. While some regions experienced a reduction in municipal waste due to reduced economic and industrial activities during the pandemic, household waste increased in many countries, driven by changes in consumer behavior and the widespread adoption of PPE. The management of used surgical masks emerged as a significant environmental challenge, with billions of masks discarded monthly, contributing to plastic pollution. Improper disposal of PPE and surgical masks in many developing nations posed health hazards, clogging landfills, and littering the environment. Addressing this issue is crucial to maintaining environmental sustainability. In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic brought unique challenges to waste management, necessitating adaptability and innovative solutions. Proper waste management practices are essential to safeguarding public health, preventing environmental pollution, and ensuring a sustainable future.
Okwudili E. Umeagukwu, Dominic O. Onukwuli, Callistus N. Ude
et al.
This research focuses on techno-economic analysis of the statistically optimized biodiesel production using African Pear Seed Oil and activated empty palm fruit bunch biocatalyst to ascertain the viability of producing African pear seed oil methyl ester (APSOME). Central composite design of response surface methodology (RSM) was used for the optimization of the process variables. The acid activated empty palm fruit bunch ash (AAEPFBA) catalyst used was synthesized from waste palm fruit bunch, and modified by adding H3PO4 acid in a ratio of 1:2 (g/ml). The RSM model predicted that the highest conversion yield of APSOME would be 89.3 %. The experiment performed yielded 90.1 %, which is in agreement with the predicted value at the following optimized reaction conditions: reaction temperature of 62.21 °C, time of 3.17 h, 10.2:1 methanol/oil molar ratio, 3.18 wt% catalyst concentration, and agitation speed of 326.51 rpm. It was established that the cost of labour will affect the profitability of produced APSOME. The overall result showed that AAEPFBA and APSO raw materials are viable and useful for sustainable biodiesel production.
Rhizosphere bacteria have always proven their worth towards their associated plant in their defense mechanism and nutritional functions. This study was made to understand the impact of rhizosphere-associated bacterial isolate PGK01 in complimenting associated Zingiber officinale plants in their potassium nutritional requirements. The screening of the isolate suggested that it can solubilize potassium, which the plant shall use for its nutritional purposes. Molecular sequencing suggested that the strain belonged to Bacillus subtilis, whose sequence has been submitted to NCBI under the accession number OQ652138. In-situ analysis of the effect of bacteria on the growth parameters and yield of the plant indicated that in the presence of microbe, plants tend to grow more when compared to without the organism. The optimization studies conducted by response surface modeling suggested that only half of the potassium fertilizer is necessary when a plant is grown in the presence of isolate compared to the conventional method. The adequacy of the statistical model was verified by analyzing the Sequential Model Sum of Squares and Cook’s distance diagnostic, wherein the observation proved the significance of the mathematical model.
Rolande Christelle Makamté Kakeu–Tardy, Hannah Howarth, Marlyne Sahakian
et al.
Organic waste is both a refuse and a resource. Focusing on household waste in a city in Western Switzerland, this study examines the practices of waste segregation in relation to the city’s (organic) waste management system. Based on qualitative research with diverse households and experts in waste management, we use social practice theory to discuss the meanings and materiality of household organic waste segregation. We show how more or less visible meanings, tied up with material arrangements, can be either enablers or deterrents for such forms of waste management. The article argues that certain aspects of the waste system could be rendered more visible, such as the proper labelling of collection bins, while less visibility could be given to certain meanings around waste segregation, such as the financial cost of not sorting. We also discuss how organic waste sorting, as a practice, contests the dominant understandings of change based on technological efficiency, economic benefits, and individual changes. More collective forms of change are needed, working at the level of social contexts and materiality, to further support organic waste sorting.
Municipal refuse. Solid wastes, Standardization. Simplification. Waste
Nicola J. Harris, James J. Dynes, Joyce M. McBeth
et al.
Microorganisms in hypersaline potash mining byproducts and their potential environmental applications have not been extensively reported. This study reports the diverse waste-impacted microbial communities (archaea and bacteria) adapted to extreme salinity (>10–25%). Of these, halotolerant Croceicoccus sp. FTI14 was investigated as a biosorbent for removing dissolved Cu(II) and Cr(VI) from synthetic Cu(II) and Cr(VI)-contaminated DI, groundwater and saline groundwater (0.55 M ionic strength). FTI14 biomass was oven-dried, finely ground, and investigated in batch biosorption experiments. At initial metal concentrations of 40 mg/L, FTI14 removed 40 ± 0.7% (16.3 ± 0.5 mg/g) and 19 ± 0.1% (7.8 ± 0.1 mg/g) of the Cu(II) from deionized water and saline groundwater, respectively, while only 22.9 ± 0.7% (9.6 ± 0.2 mg/g) and 2.1 ± 0.6% (1.0 ± 0.3 mg/g) Cr(VI) removal was achieved. Cu(II) uptake (mg/g) exceeded Cr(VI) uptake by a factor of 1.7–7.8. Langmuir and Freundlich models were applied on FTI14 biosorption isotherm data. The Freundlich model showed a better fit for both Cu(II) and Cr(VI), as indicated by the AIC values compared with evidence ratios. Synchrotron-based scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) visualizations of the biosorbent showed a mixture of whole cells and indistinct biomass and a spatial association between metals and biomass. Metal exposure alters the amide functional groups peak in Fourier transform Infra-red (FTIR) spectra, suggesting its role in sorption process. Thus, this study indicates culturable halotolerant microorganisms from hypersaline potash mining byproducts and its potential as biosorbent applications for metal removal from impacted groundwater.
Among the mix of motivations that inspire people to sell and shop at garage sales is the desire to prevent the disposal of still usable goods. Sales can be so effective for redistributing consumer goods and reducing waste that numerous municipalities, such as Sunnyvale, California and Sydney, Australia, promote their sales through a community-wide staging. Lengthy corridor sales in the U.S., like that held annually on Route 127 (the “World’s Longest Yard Sale”), serve the same function, drawing positive media attention and promoting civic pride. But unlike the mundane act of recycling used papers and cans at the curb, making goods available for reuse at garage sales is an action loaded with personal sentiment. Second-hand purchases are often imbued with “sticky” emotional orientations (Ahmed 2010) and reminiscences. This article therefore examines the garage sale as a site for redistributing goods with emotions and histories attached. Participants derive some small recompense in the form of money made, the acquisition of inexpensive goods, and the self-satisfaction associated with reducing waste, but shoppers and sellers are also allied in a tug of war against the landfill to claim the future of goods, especially the storied items adopted by shoppers. Beneath their goal of cleaning out the garage, garnering some extra cash, or obtaining a bargain, participants assert that the reuse of and care for still serviceable goods is meritorious and morally praiseworthy. In the process of reuse, they enhance their moral selves and perform a good deed, however minor, by preserving both the stories of these objects and the embattled earth.
Municipal refuse. Solid wastes, Standardization. Simplification. Waste