With the global population surpassing 8 billion in 2022 and projected to exceed 10 billion by 2058, municipal solid waste (MSW) generation presents a formidable challenge. One approach to manage MSW is Waste-to-Energy. This includes the conversion of MSW into carbonized solid fuel (CSF) through thermochemical processes. However, concerns regarding volatile organic compounds (VOCs) release from CSF during storage and use have arisen. Such release can pose potential health and environmental risks, yet the issue remains underexplored. This review critically evaluates VOC release from waste-derived CSF, namely carbonized refuse-derived fuel. It focuses on gaps in existing research, inconsistencies in VOC quantification methods, and regulatory challenges. Unlike existing studies that primarily examine process emissions, this review emphasizes the release of VOCs during storage and handling. A framework to integrate process-condition modeling and post-production release assessment was proposed to provide insights into mitigation strategies for VOC release reduction during storage and handling. Our findings highlight critical research gaps in VOC characterization, predictive modeling, and long-term exposure risks. This review emphasizes the need for standardized methodologies and stricter regulatory oversight in the management of waste-derived solid fuels.
This study evaluates the greenhouse gas (GHG) impacts of converting municipal solid waste (MSW) into methanol, focusing on both landfill methane (CH4) emission avoidance and the provision of cleaner liquid fuels with lower carbon intensity. We conduct a life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess potential GHG reductions from MSW gasification to methanol, enhanced with hydrogen produced via natural gas pyrolysis or water electrolysis. Hydrogen enhancement effectively doubles the methanol yield from a given amount of MSW. Special attention is given to hydrogen production through natural gas pyrolysis due to its potential for lower-cost hydrogen and reduced reliance on renewable electricity compared to electrolytic hydrogen. Our analysis uses a case study of methanol production from an oxygen-fired entrained flow gasifier fed with refuse-derived fuel (RDF) simulated in Aspen HYSYS. The LCA incorporates the significant impact of landfill methane avoidance, particularly when considering the 20-year global warming potential (GWP). Based on the LCA, the process has illustrative net GHG emissions of 183 and 709 kgCO2e/t MeOH using renewable electricity for electrolytic hydrogen and pyrolytic hydrogen, respectively, for the 100-year GWP. The net GHG emissions using 20-year GWP are −1222 and −434 kgCO2e/t MeOH, respectively. Additionally, we analyze the sensitivity of net GHG emissions to varying levels of fugitive methane emissions.
C. Ferreira, Luciano R. Infiesta, V. Monteiro
et al.
Abstract This is the first study to investigate the use of municipal refuse-derived fuel for gasification in pilot plant scale aiming at urban waste treatment and energy generation. Energy and mass balances were applied to the thermochemical reactor based on the experimental data obtained during pilot scale operation to calculate thermal efficiency associated to the process. Volumetric composition, lower heating value, and density of the resulting syngas were determined using calorimetric tests and chromatographic analyses. The pilot plant gasification system processed 7.1 tonnes day−1 of municipal refuse-derived fuel producing 16.9 tonnes day−1 of syngas with a lower heating value of 4.6 MJ kg−1, along with 26 wt.% ash. No tar was generated during the process. According to results of this study, the pilot plant is able to generate sufficient electricity for nearly 800 small houses if connected to a steam power cycle. Pollutants emitted from syngas combustion (performed by accredited agencies) were analyzed and levels were below legal standards established in Brazil and in the United States, thus demonstrating the feasibility of this technology for conversion of municipal solid waste into a renewable energy source.
Landfill material refers to the waste which has buried in landfill sites for a long time. The combustible components of landfill material can be made into refuse derived fuel for energy utilization. According to previous studies, landfill material refuse derived fuel (LMRDF) mainly consisted of plastic and rubber with relatively high calorific value. In this study, the proximate and ultimate analyses of LMRDF and municipal solid waste were compared. The kinetic analyses of LMRDF, RDF and their mixture with different ratios were also conducted. Furthermore, the pollutant emission during co-incineration of LMRDF in a lab-scale municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fluidized bed furnace was investigated. The effects of co-incineration ratio, incineration temperature and water content of LMRDF on pollutant emission were also observed. The emission of NOx, SO2, CO and HCl varied a lot under different experimental conditions, while the contents of heavy metal in the flue gas and fly ash almost remained the ...
ABSTRACT The objective of this work was to explore an alternative way to manage the non-biodegradable and non-recyclable fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW) in Vellore city, India. Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) samples with different proportions of plastic, thermocol, foam and jute straw were formulated. The RDF samples were characterized in the form of heating values (proximate and ultimate analysis), surface properties through X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermal stability through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The measured higher heating values (HHV) of four RDF samples varying between 6032 and 6168 kcal/kg were effectively modelled using various empirical models for the prediction of HHV based on their elemental analysis. Higher absolute weight loss in TGA was evident in samples with jute straw while the highest rate of weight loss was noted in samples with a higher proportion of thermocol. Results from this preliminary investigation of RDF samples prepared from non-biodegradable and non-recyclable fractions of MSW warrants an exhaustive analysis of a larger pool of samples to project appropriate RDF composition for better energy recovery. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
Abstract The authors determined the morphological composition of refuse derived fuel (RDF) produced in Latvia and Lithuania by manually sorting. The parameters of RDF (moisture, net calorific value, ash content, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, chlorine, metals) was determined using the EN standards. Comparing obtained results with data from literature, authors have found that the content of plastic is higher but paper and cardboard is lower than typical values. Results also show that the mean parameters for RDF can be classified with the class codes: Net heating value (3); chlorine (3); mercury (1), and responds to limits stated for 3rd class of solid recovered fuel. It is recommended to separate biological waste at source to lower moisture and ash content and increase heating value for potential fuel production from waste.
Landfill sites are hard to obtain in Taiwan. Municipal solid waste (MSW) in the closed landfill sites has high combustible content and calorific value (CV). Therefore, activating the closed landfill sites as municipal mine sites to prolong their service life will promote a sustainable environment. This study transforms combustibles from the closed municipal landfill sites of different landfill ages (LAs) into refuse-derived fuel (RDF) through pretreatment and squeeze forming equipment, so to investigate the characteristics of the MSW of different LAs, and the manufacturing conditions and firing behaviour of RDF. The results indicate that the proportion of the combustibles in MSW declines as the LA grows, and therefore the proportions of both incombustible materials and soil and debris correspondingly increased. The LA of the MSW is thus negatively correlated with the CV. The MSW at the LA of 10 years still has high potential as fuel material. The fixed carbon initiation temperatures (i.e. ignition temperatures) of combustibles of the MSW at the LAs of 1 year, 5 years and 10 years are 259°C, 256°C and 245°C, respectively. The CV and flame temperature of the RDF increase slightly with the increasing squeeze temperature (ST) at 100–120°C, but it will decrease when the ST reaches 130°C. Therefore, this study recommends the squeeze pressure of the RDF as 41.65 ± 8.24 kg cm−2, ST 110°C and combustible size 10–20 mm.
Hwansoo Jung, D. D. Sewu, Godfred Ohemeng-Boahen
et al.
This study investigated the effect of steam and air flowrate combinations on the syngas efflux, physicochemical properties and adsorption performances (on congo red, CR and crystal violet, CV removal) of waste char by-product from the industrial gasification of solid refuse fuel from municipal solid waste. The BET surface area (11.4 m2/g), porosity (74.7%), fixed carbon content (25.8 wt%) and hydrophilicity (0.09) were enhanced with lower steam rate and higher air supply rate combination (MSWC-L) than for the higher steam rate and lower air supply rate combination (MSWC-H). Adsorption performances were higher for MSWC-L than MSWC-H on both CR (35.7-49.7 mg/g) and CV (235 to 356 mg/g) removal, suggesting that, higher air supply rate (214 Nm3/h; at 0.36 equivalence ratio) with lower steam rate (37 kg/h) were more effective gasification process conditions. Results showed that, syngas efflux was more sensitive to air supply rate than steam supply rate. Reactions in the combustion zone were not only limited to the pyrolysis gas vapours but to the char also. In conclusion, the waste chars from municipal solid waste gasification showed good potential as adsorbents in wastewater treatment.
Abstract The non-recyclable fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW refuse) represents over half of the total MSW production in Europe, with an energetic potential of 1250 PJ/year, a similar quantity to the current potential for energy production from agricultural residues. Currently, there are no alternative uses for MSW refuse other than landfilling or incineration. Thus, it represents an important untapped resource for biofuel production in Europe. Standard attributional LCAs have not been able to capture some of the bioenergy interactions with the climate system and neither to properly assess the climate change mitigation potential of bioenergy technologies. This study aims to fill this gap and properly assess the impact of the production of biofuels from MSW refuse on climate change by applying several methodological improvements in a time-dependent assessment, i.e., an explicit consideration of biogenic carbon flows using a dynamic LCA and an absolute formulation of the cumulative and instantaneous climate metrics. Two diverging examples of current MSW management systems are selected as references against which to assess the potential climate benefit of biofuel production: with or without dominant landfill disposal and with high or low GHG emissions from the power generation sector. The results show that in countries with current negligible landfilling, the production of biofuels would lead to a clear climate benefit. For landfill-dominant countries, the climate benefit would only be temporarily achieved in the medium term as the impact of landfills on climate decreases in the long term. However, considering a progressive banning of landfilling promoted by other policies for environmental protection and resource efficiency, the results would become positive for both countries with climate change mitigation guaranteed by using MSW refuse for biofuel production.
This paper examines Refused Derived Fuel (RDF) potential from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) as cement industry’s alternative fuel in developing country. Municipal solid waste remains an issues for city while cement industry are needed a sustainable alternative fuel resources. Jeruklegi Landfill, in Cilacap City, Central Java Province, Indonesia was selected as a research case, because its location is close to cement industry. Research’s approach is using triple bottom line sustainability; economic, social and environment. It investigates RDF potential from quality aspects (calorific value), economic aspect (RDF price), environment aspect (GHG emission) and social inclusion of waste picker. It is found that MSW on Jeruklegi Landfill has a potential for processing in to RDF, since its average calorific value is 3563 Kcal/kg, price is 293,000 IDR/ton, and avoided 2.9x106 Nm3 methane emission. An inclusive approach should be taken into account in early stage to engage waste picker rather that marginalized them. This findings contributes to government as well as cement industry on RDF as a solution for waste management and fossil fuel conservation.
Many cities in developing countries is facing a serious problems to dealing with huge municipal solid waste (MSW) generated. The main approach to manage MSW is causes environmental impact associated with the leachate and landfill gas emissions. On the other hand, the energy available also limited by rapid growth of population and economic development due to shortage of the natural resource. In this study, the potential utilized of MSW to produce refuse derived fuel (RDF) was investigate. The RDF was produced with various organic waste content. Then, the RDF was subjected to laboratory analysis to determine its characteristic including the calorific value. The results shows the moisture content was increased by increasing organic waste content, while the calorific value was found 17-36 MJ/kg. The highest calorific value was about 36 MJ/kg obtained at RDF with 40% organic waste content. This results indicated that the RDF can be use to substitute coal in main burning process and calcinations of cement industry.
Torrefaction is next to drying, pelletizing and briquetting one of the methods for pre-treatment of fuels for later use for energy purposes. Torrefaction is a ther -mo-chemical process, carried out in the temperature range from 200 to 300°C, under atmospheric pressure and inert gas environment. The study involved a refuse derived fuel (RDF) produced from municipal solid waste in a mechanical-biological plant. The aim of this work was to determine the kinetic parameters of the torrefaction process of RDF and to examine the effect of temperature and the residence time on fuel prop erties of biochar. Torrefaction process was carried out in the temperature range from 200 to 300°C with the temperature interval of 20°C. The residence was respectively 20, 40 and 60 minutes for each temperature. RDF and the resulting carbonized refuse derived fuel (CRDF) have been subjected to the following analysis: moisture content, organic matter, combustible and volatile content, ash content, and higher heating value. The determined activation energy of RDF torrefaction was 3.71 kJ·mol -1 . The thermogravimetric analysis indicated that during torrefaction, mostly lingo-cellulos ic, and hemi-cellulosic biomass present in RDF decomposes during torrefaction. Studies have shown the influence of residence time and temperature on fuel proper ties of the obtained CRDF. The highest heating value of the CRDF was obtained for the temperature of 260°C, and residence time 20 minutes.
Gabroni Sagala, G. A. Kristanto, M. A. Kusuma
et al.
In Indonesia, waste processing is a very complicated problem especially in major industries such as the cement industry. Demand for cement in Indonesia is very high and recorded to reach 69.8 million tons in 2015. Indocement, the 2nd largest cement manufacturer in Indonesia, reported that in 2015 the demand for cement reached 13.32 million tons of clinker and is projected to rise by an average of 2.61% per year. Higher demand for cement results in higher energy required which leads to higher use of solid fuels (coal). Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be used as refuse-derived fuel (RDF) using advanced pre-treatment. Pre-treatment is a way to set aside MSW material that cannot be used as energy such as glass, metal, chunks and other materials. In addition, it also serves as technology to reduce moisture content in waste. This study evaluated the potential of RDF as solid fuel in the Cement Industry. Two scenarios were tested to forecast RDF potential from 2015 to 2050 (35 years). The scenarios concerned Indonesia’s regulations on 3R Program, MSW level of service, and variables of the waste composition. Since Indocement is located in Kabupaten (District) Bogor, Indonesia, the source of RDF is also generated in the area. Kabupaten Bogor produced MSW amounting to 1,787 tons/day in 2015, and each year it will increase along with the increasing growth of population. In 2015, the energy required to produce 12.62 million tons of clinker amounted to 9.87 billion Mcal, whereas the available energy from RDF was 1.15 billion Mcal. After the year 2050, the energy required is projected to reach 34.51 billion Mcal to produce 25 million tons of clinker, while RDF energy available for that year will only be 1.73 billion McCall, so it is necessary to close the coal in the energy shortage. RDF energy generated in Kabupaten Bogor only meets 3-6% of the energy required per year by the cement industry. It can be concluded that the use of RDF as fuel is not sufficient to cover the needs of energy in the cement industry. The need for supply in other cities in the form of MSW itself and/or solid waste meets the supply of energy in the cement industry. Receiving RDF from neighboring towns or setting up cooperation with nearby factories to process RDF can be a solution for energy shortage in the supply of RDF in Bogor.
The compression and relaxation characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW) refuse-derived-fuel (RDF) fluff were investigated with respect to biodegradable fraction, grind size, moisture content, applied load, and pelleting temperature. Experimental trials were performed by using a single pelleting unit mounted on an Instron universal testing machine. Two grind sizes of each sample were prepared, 3.18 mm and 6.35 mm, and moisture contents were increased to 8 %, 12 %, and 16 % w.b. The applied loads were set at 2 kN, 3 kN, and 4 kN at two temperature settings, 50 °C and 90 °C. The experimental data for these trials was collected and multiple compression and relaxation models were fitted to the applied pressure, compact density or volume data. The results indicated that the compact density of RDF improved by increasing the grind size, while the compact density of biodegradable pellets increased with increasing pelleting load and temperature. The compact density of pellets produced from RDF ranged from 880–1020 kg/m3; the compact density of the biodegradable pellets ranged from 1120–1290 kg/m3. The Walker and Jones models both indicated that the biodegradable material fraction has a higher compressibility than the RDF material, where neither moisture content nor grind size at all levels had a significant effect on the compressibility of either material. The Kawakita-Lüdde model estimated the porosity of the pelleted samples, while the Cooper-Eaton model indicated that the primary mechanism of densification was particle rearrangement. Application of the Peleg and Moreyra model for analysis of relaxation properties of the compressed materials determined the asymptotic modulus of the residual stress to be between 89 and 117 MPa for all experimental parameters; however, the RDF material produced more rigid pellets than the biodegradable material.