Volatile organic compounds release from carbonized solid fuels derived from municipal solid waste: Risks, mitigation, and regulatory challenges.

With the global population surpassing 8 billion in 2022 and projected to exceed 10 billion by 2058, municipal solid waste (MSW) generation presents a formidable challenge. One approach to manage MSW is Waste-to-Energy. This includes the conversion of MSW into carbonized solid fuel (CSF) through thermochemical processes. However, concerns regarding volatile organic compounds (VOCs) release from CSF during storage and use have arisen. Such release can pose potential health and environmental risks, yet the issue remains underexplored. This review critically evaluates VOC release from waste-derived CSF, namely carbonized refuse-derived fuel. It focuses on gaps in existing research, inconsistencies in VOC quantification methods, and regulatory challenges. Unlike existing studies that primarily examine process emissions, this review emphasizes the release of VOCs during storage and handling. A framework to integrate process-condition modeling and post-production release assessment was proposed to provide insights into mitigation strategies for VOC release reduction during storage and handling. Our findings highlight critical research gaps in VOC characterization, predictive modeling, and long-term exposure risks. This review emphasizes the need for standardized methodologies and stricter regulatory oversight in the management of waste-derived solid fuels.