Hasil untuk "History of Great Britain"

Emanuele Bottazzi, Mikhail G. Katz

We apply Nancy Cartwright's distinction between theories and basic models to explore the history of rival approaches to modeling a notion of chance for an ideal uniform physical process known as a fair spinner. This process admits both Archimedean and non-Archimedean models. Advocates of Archimedean models maintain that the fair spinner should satisfy hypotheses such as invariance with respect to rotations by an arbitrary real angle, and assume that the optimal mathematical tool in this context is the Lebesgue measure. Others argue that invariance with respect to all real rotations does not constitute an essential feature of the underlying physical process, and could be relaxed in favor of regularity. We show that, working in ZFC, no subset of the commonly assumed hypotheses determines a unique model, suggesting that physically based intuitions alone are insufficient to pin down a unique mathematical model. We provide a rebuttal of recent criticisms of non-Archimedean models by Parker and Pruss.

Yakir Aharonov, Guy Hetzroni

This oral history interview provides Yakir Aharonov's perspective on the theoretical discovery of the Aharonov-Bohm effect in 1959, during his PhD studies in Bristol with David Bohm, the reception of the effect, the efforts to test it empirically (up to Tonomura's experiment), and some of the debates regarding the existence of the effect and its interpretation. The interview also discusses related later developments until the 1980s, including modular momentum and Berry's phase. It includes recollections from meetings with Werner Heisenberg, Richard Feynman, and Chen-Ning Yang, also mentioning John Bell, Robert Chambers, Werner Ehrenberg, Sir Charles Frank, Wendell Furry, Gunnar Källén, Maurice Pryce, Nathan Rosen, John Wheeler, and Eugene Wigner.

Hiroto Sato, Konan Shimizu

In social learning environments, agents acquire information from both private signals and the observed actions of predecessors, referred to as history. We define the value of history as the gain in expected payoff from accessing both the private signal and history, compared to relying on the signal alone. We first characterize the information structures that maximize this value, showing that it is highest under a mixture of full information and no information. We then apply these insights to a model of markets for history, where a monopolistic data seller collects and sells access to history. In equilibrium, the seller's dynamic pricing becomes the value of history for each agent. This gives the seller incentives to increase the value of history by designing the information structure. The seller optimal information discloses less information than the socially optimal level.

B.V. Nikolaev, N.A. Pavlova

Background. Domestic diplomacy and international legal science played a leading role in the formation of international humanitarian law. Russia initiated major projects in the field of international law before the world wars: two Hague Peace Conferences were held in 1899 and 1907. However, such a significant page of Russian history in the development of international law received insufficient attention from domestic and foreign researchers, the latter actively study the role of the United States, Great Britain, France and other countries in the development of international humanitarian law. In this regard, the study of the content and results of the Second Peace Conference and its historical significance seems relevant and scientifically significant. The work aims to determine the main directions and achievements of the Hague Peace Conference of 1907 in terms of developing rules for waging armed conflicts, determining the importance of the adopted documents and the results of the conference for the development of international law. Materials and methods. The objectives are achieved by analyzing the official materials of the Hague Peace Conference of 1907, official acts of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire, assessments of the conference's achievements given by its participants, international treaties (the Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1907), and scientific literature. Results. The work analyzes the content of the work of the Second Hague Peace Conference on the codification of the laws and customs of warfare, the role of the Russian delegation in achieving the goals, and the significance of its work for the dynamic development of international humanitarian law. Conclusions. The study of the prerequisites for holding the conference, the content of the work, and historical significance of the Hague Forum allows us to conclude that Russian diplomacy and the Russian state played a special role in terms of codifying the laws and customs of warfare and dynamic development of international humanitarian law.

Laurence Harris

This article examines how the Bank of England contributed to mitigating political instability in the UK between 2016 and 2024, a period marked by Brexit, rapid ministerial turnover and economic volatility. Using historical and discursive institutionalism as theoretical frameworks, the study analyses the Bank's interventions during three critical episodes: the Governor’s reassuring response following David Cameron's post-Brexit referendum resignation; the Bank's stabilising role during Liz Truss's mini-budget crisis; and its contested deployment of quantitative easing. Through analysis of the Bank's coordinative discourse among policy actors and communicative discourse with the public, the research demonstrates how this 330-year-old institution has deployed institutional authority and strategic communication to maintain financial and political stability during a period of enduring upheaval. The study reveals the complex interplay between technocratic expertise and democratic accountability, showing how the Bank's discursive power and perceived neutrality have allowed it to manage leadership vacuums during political crises. While these interventions helped preserve stability, they raise important questions about the democratic legitimacy of central bank independence and the concentration of macroeconomic power in unelected institutions. The findings contribute to our understanding of how institutional resilience can both temper political instability and potentially reconfigure power dynamics in liberal democracies.

Federico Laudisa

The Bohr and von Neumann views on the measurement process in quantum mechanics have been interpreted for a long time in somewhat controversial terms, often leading to misconceptions. On the basis of some textual analysis, I would like to show that, contrary to a widespread opinion, their views should be taken less inconsistent, and much closer to each other, than usually thought. As a consequence, I claim that Bohr and von Neumann are conceptually on the same side on the issue of the universality of quantum mechanics: hopefully, this might contribute to a more accurate history of the measurement problem in quantum mechanics.

Emily F. Kerrison, Ron D. Ekers, John Morgan et al.

Recent observations of interplanetary scintillation (IPS) at radio frequencies have proved to be a powerful tool for probing the solar environment from the ground. But how far back does this tradition really extend? Our survey of the literature to date has revealed a long history of scintillating observations, beginning with the oral traditions of Indigenous peoples from around the globe, encompassing the works of the Ancient Greeks and Renaissance scholars, and continuing right through into modern optics, astronomy and space science. We outline here the major steps that humanity has taken along this journey, using scintillation as a tool for predicting first terrestrial, and then space weather without ever having to leave the ground.

Ryan M. McGranaghan

This review examines complexity science in Heliophysics, describing it not as a discipline, but as a paradigm. In the context of Heliophysics, complexity science is the study of a star, interplanetary environment, magnetosphere, upper and terrestrial atmospheres, and planetary surface as interacting subsystems. Complexity science studies entities in a system (e.g., electrons in an atom, planets in a solar system, individuals in a society) and their interactions, and is the nature of what emerges from these interactions. It is a paradigm that employs systems approaches and is inherently multi- and cross-scale. Heliophysics processes span at least 15 orders of magnitude in space and another 15 in time, and its reaches go well beyond our own solar system and Earth's space environment to touch planetary, exoplanetary, and astrophysical domains. It is an uncommon domain within which to explore complexity science. This review article excavates the lived and living history of complexity science in Heliophysics. It identifies five dimensions of complexity science. It then proceeds in three epochal parts: 1) A pivotal year in the Complexity Heliophysics paradigm: 1996; 2) The transitional years that established foundations of the paradigm (1996-2010); and 3) The emergent literature largely beyond 2010. The history reveals a grand challenge that confronts most physical sciences to understand the research intersection between fundamental science (e.g., complexity science) and applied science (e.g., artificial intelligence and machine learning). A risk science framework is suggested as a way of formulating the challenges in a way that the two converge. The intention is to provide inspiration and guide future research. It will be instructive to Heliophysics researchers, but also to any reader interested in or hoping to advance the frontier of systems and complexity science.

Benoît Rittaud, Laurent Vivier

We reconsider the classical equality 0.999. .. = 1 with the tool of circular words, that is: finite words whose last letter is assumed to be followed by the first one. Such circular words are naturally embedded with algebraic structures that enlight this problematic equality, allowing it to be considered in Q rather than in R. We comment early history of such structures, that involves English teachers and accountants of the first part of the xviii th century, who appear to be the firsts to assert the equality 0.999. .. = 1. Their level of understanding show links with Dubinsky et al.'s apos theory in mathematics education. Eventually, we rebuilt the field Q from circular words, and provide an original proof of the fact that an algebraic integer is either an integer or an irrational number.

Zdenek Sekanina, Rainer Kracht

We present the results of our orbital computations in support of the recently proposed contact-binary model for the Kreutz sungrazer system (Sekanina 2021, 2022). We demonstrate that comet Ikeya-Seki (C/1965 S1) previously passed perihelion decades after the Great Comet of 1106 (X/1106 C1) and argue that, like the Great September Comet of 1882 (C/1882 R1), it evidently was a fragment of the comet recorded by the Chinese in September 1138. The 1106 sungrazer appears instead to have been the previous appearance of the Great March Comet of 1843 (C/1843 D1). With no momentum exchange involved, fragments of a Kreutz sungrazer breaking up tidally near perihelion are shown to end up in orbits with markedly different periods because their centers of mass are radially shifted by a few kilometers relative to the parent. The daylight comets of AD 363, recorded by a Roman historian, are accommodated in our computations as the first appearance of the Kreutz sungrazers after their bilobed progenitor's breakup. We link the 1843-1106-363 (Lobe I) and 1882-1138-363 (Lobe II) returns to perihelion by single nongravitational orbits and gravitationally with minor center-of-mass shifts acquired in fragmentation events. We also successfully model the motion of Aristotle's comet as the rotating progenitor that at aphelion split (at a few m/s) into the two lobes, the precursors of, respectively, the 1843 and 1882 sungrazers; and provide a 1963-1041-363 link for comet Pereyra (C/1963 R1). Material fatigue could contribute to sungrazers' fragmentation throughout the orbit, including aphelion. -- Continuing problems with the nongravitational law in orbit software are noted.

J. Goldstone

Abstract New data on Dutch and British GDP/capita show that at no time prior to 1750, perhaps not before 1800, did the leading countries of northwestern Europe enjoy sustained strong growth in GDP/capita. Such growth in income per head as did occur was highly episodic, concentrated in a few decades and then followed by long periods of stagnation of income per head. Moreover, at no time before 1800 did the leading economies of northwestern Europe reach levels of income per capita much different from peak levels achieved hundreds of years earlier in the most developed regions of Italy and China. When the Industrial Revolution began in Britain, it was not preceded by patterns of pre-modern income growth that were in any way remarkable, neither by sustained prior growth in real incomes nor exceptional levels of income per head. The Great Divergence, seen as the onset of sustained increases in income per head despite strong population growth, and achievement of incomes beyond pre-modern peaks, was a late occurrence, arising only from 1800.

Maria Papadopoulou, Zacharoula Smyrnaiou

Digital technologies, such as the Internet and Artificial Intelligence, are part of our daily lives, influencing broader aspects of our way of life, as well as the way we interact with the past. Having dramatically changed the ways in which knowledge is produced and consumed, the algorithmic age has also radically changed the relationship that the general public has with History. Fields of History such as Public and Oral History have particularly benefitted from the rise of digital culture. How does our digital culture affect the way we think, study, research and teach the past, as historical evidence spreads rapidly in the public sphere? How do digital technologies promote the study, writing and teaching of History? What should historians, students of history and pre-service history teachers be critically aware of, when swarmed with digitized or born-digital content, constantly growing on the Internet? And while these changes are now visible globally, how is the discipline of History situated within the digital transformation rapidly advancing in Greece? Finally, what are the consequences of these changes for History as a subject taught at Greek secondary schools? These are some of the issues raised in the text that follows, which is part of the course materials of the undergraduate course offered during winter semester 2020-2021 at the School University of Athens, School of Philosophy, Pedagogy, Psychology. Course Title: 'Pedagogics of History: Theory and Practice', Academic Institution: School of Philosophy-Pedagogy-Psychology, University of Athens.

Jason Garver

"Rigor" is an often sought after but ill-defined concept in education. This work reviews several models of rigor from current literature before proposing a tool which is used to analyze science education throughout history. The 20\textsuperscript{th} century science education in the United States was subject to changing sociopolitical motivations about the use of science both in general and for students. These factors as well as developments in theory of learning and broad education reforms had changing affects on the level of rigor in science education. This work analyzes the theoretical level of rigor of science education in the US based on two main motivating factors for science education; science as a social endeavor and science as a discipline, throughout the 20\textsuperscript{th} century.

Richard de Grijs

Longitude determination at sea gained increasing commercial importance in the late Middle Ages, spawned by a commensurate increase in long-distance merchant shipping activity. Prior to the successful development of an accurate marine timepiece in the late-eighteenth century, marine navigators relied predominantly on the Moon for their time and longitude determinations. Lunar eclipses had been used for relative position determinations since Antiquity, but their rare occurrences precludes their routine use as reliable way markers. Measuring lunar distances, using the projected positions on the sky of the Moon and bright reference objects--the Sun or one or more bright stars--became the method of choice. It gained in profile and importance through the British Board of Longitude's endorsement in 1765 of the establishment of a Nautical Almanac. Numerous 'projectors' jumped onto the bandwagon, leading to a proliferation of lunar ephemeris tables. Chronometers became both more affordable and more commonplace by the mid-nineteenth century, signaling the beginning of the end for the lunar distance method as a means to determine one's longitude at sea.

Yves Golder

The main ambition of this article is to pay tribute to Jacques Leruez whose work came to constitute a reference for British civilisation researchers focusing on the twentieth century. It provides a study of the representation of Margaret Thatcher’s political image in the British television show called Spitting Image. This TV show was broadcast on ITV from 1984 to 1996. As that period included six years of her premiership, it is not surprising that Margaret Thatcher was one of the main characters in the show. Its aim was to offer a political caricature necessarily consisting in a distortion of reality. In the late twentieth century and, more precisely, in the 1980s, television developed as a means of communication throughout Western Europe thanks to the creation of new channels and the general deregulation of this market. As a consequence, it was increasingly used as a means of political propaganda or advertising whether by politicians themselves or by the media. One main ambition behind Spitting Image was to ridicule British politicians like Margaret Thatcher. Did the TV show succeed in building an efficient criticism thanks to its satirical dimension ? This contribution will first highlight the different ways in which Margaret Thatcher was caricatured by Spitting Image. More precisely, it will focus on four different forms of representations which seemed to prevail in the show. As for the conclusion, it will be devoted to the ways in which her caricature was generally perceived by her fellow citizens.

B. Lee Roberts

I discuss the history of the muon $(g-2)$ measurements, beginning with the Columbia-Nevis measurement that observed parity violation in muon decay, and also measured the muon $g$-factor for the first time, finding $g_μ=2$. The theoretical (Standard Model) value contains contributions from quantum electrodynamics, the strong interaction through hadronic vacuum polarization and hadronic light-by-light loops, as well as the electroweak contributions from the $W$, $Z$ and Higgs bosons. The subsequent experiments, first at Nevis and then with increasing precision at CERN, measured the muon anomaly $a_μ= (g_μ-2)/2$ down to a precision of 7.3 parts per million (ppm) The Brookhaven National Laboratory experiment E821 increased the precision to 0.54 ppm, and observed for the first time the electroweak contributions. Interestingly, the value of $a_μ$ measured at Brookhaven appears to be larger than the Standard Model value by greater than three standard deviations. A new experiment, Fermilab E989, aims to improve on the precision by a factor of four, to clarify whether this result is a harbinger of new physics entering through loops, or from some experimental, statistical or systematic issue.

Stephen J Price, Alexandra Wadia, Owen N Wright et al.

Reports of severe disease outbreaks in amphibian communities in mainland Europe due to strains of the common midwife toad virus (CMTV)-like clade of Ranavirus are increasing and have created concern due to their considerable population impacts. In Great Britain, viruses in another clade of Ranavirus-frog virus 3 (FV3)-like-have caused marked declines of common frog (Rana temporaria) populations following likely recent virus introductions. The British public has been reporting mortality incidents to a citizen science project since 1992, with carcasses submitted for post-mortem examination, resulting in a long-term tissue archive spanning 25 years. We screened this archive for ranavirus (458 individuals from 228 incidents) using molecular methods and undertook preliminary genotyping of the ranaviruses detected. In total, ranavirus was detected in 90 individuals from 41 incidents focused in the north and south of England. The majority of detections involved common frogs (90%) but also another anuran, a caudate and a reptile. Most incidents were associated with FV3-like viruses but two, separated by 300 km and 16 years, involved CMTV-like viruses. These British CMTV-like viruses were more closely related to ranaviruses from mainland Europe than to each other and were estimated to have diverged at least 458 years ago. This evidence of a CMTV-like virus in Great Britain in 1995 represents the earliest confirmed case of a CMTV associated with amphibians and raises important questions about the history of ranavirus in Great Britain and the epidemiology of CMTV-like viruses. Despite biases present in the opportunistic sample used, this study also demonstrates the role of citizen science projects in generating resources for research and the value of maintaining long-term wildlife tissue archives.

Catherine Puzzo

In February 2009 Gordon Brown’s government promoted the concept of ‘earned citizenship’ which is based on the principle that British citizenship is a privilege that must be earned, that applying for UK citizenship is a long journey and that migrants have to undergo a series of tests before being eligible to get naturalized. Successive governments have further reinforced the criteria to meet with the introduction of a renewed version of the UK Life Test, the reinforcement of the probationary citizenship period and the requirement to have better language skills than before. Ten years after their creation, citizenship ceremonies conceived as the best way for newly registered citizens to show that they have a shared understanding of what it means to be British are still apprehended as a means to give a political and ideological significance to the attribution of citizenship through the development of a national statement of values. Simultaneously the power to deprive somebody of his citizenship has been extended in a context of increased securitization of migration. Home Secretaries have been exercising more and more their power to strip people of their British citizenship and withdraw passport facilities for those individuals suspected of having been involved in terrorist activities or considered to be a threat to national security.

Paul Fyfe

The Illustrated London News offered extensive coverage of the Great Exhibition of 1851 and even exhibited one of its own printing machines in the ‘Machines in Motion’ display. The ILN’s printing press helped supply its illustrated supplements for the Great Exhibition and stoked visitors’ curiosity about the steam-driven press at the show: an Applegath four-feeder printing from a revolving vertical type drum. Notably, this machine was printing mostly text-based pages on a single side. The periodical’s signature illustrations had to be printed on a different press at the ILN’s offices in the Strand. This article recreates the twinned origins of a single leaf of paper from the ILN’s Great Exhibition supplement from 31 May 1851 as evidence of the changing ontology of industrially printed things at mid-century. The sheet demonstrates the technological evolution of illustrated periodicals as well as their hybrid conceptual status, blending text and image in a genre that claimed the immediacy of news. Ultimately, the ILN celebrated its industrial processes as a guarantee of visual fidelity, offering its illustrations not only for what they visually represent but also as material artefacts of its own production.

Romain Garbaye, Vincent Latour

Since 2001, successive British governments have rolled back the multiculturalist policies of the previous decades, at least in theory, at the level of policy discourse. In the context of the 9/11 terror attacks, followed by the London bombings of 7 July 2005, and of the riots of the north of England of 2001, the discourse on the incorporation of migrants and minorities, both from the government and the media, has become securitised. Multiculturalism has been criticised for encouraging ethnic communities to foster illiberal values, leading to segregation, and for encouraging separatism or even violent extremism among some individuals. New policy discourses have emphasised common values, a reconstructed British national identity, and intercultural dialogue. Yet within this universalistic turn it is possible to discern the persistence of an understanding of migrant incorporation, which is still framed in terms of cultural or ethnic community. This can be observed in the concepts of “community cohesion” or “Britishness”, which more or less explicitly require migrants and minorities to accept dominant values, thereby implicitly ethnicising them. The same logic is at work in the assumptions underlying the PREVENT programme, which aims at preventing violent extremism in Muslim communities.