Hasil untuk "History of Law"

Alison Mills

The Color of Law examines the local, state and federal housing policies that mandated segregation. He notes that the Federal Housing Administration, which was established in 1934, furthered the segregation efforts by refusing to insure mortgages in and near African-American neighborhoods — a policy known as "redlining." At the same time, the FHA was subsidizing builders who were mass-producing entire subdivisions for whites — with the requirement that none of the homes be sold to AfricanAmericans. (Source)

R. Froese

Summary This study presents a historical review, a meta-analysis, and recommendations for users about weight–length relationships, condition factors and relative weight equations. The historical review traces the developments of the respective concepts. The meta-analysis explores 3929 weight–length relationships of the type W ¼ aL b for 1773 species of fishes. It shows that 82% of the variance in a plot of log a over b can be explained by allometric versus isometric growth patterns and by different body shapes of the respective species. Across species median b ¼ 3.03 is significantly larger than 3.0, thus indicating a tendency towards slightly positive-allometric growth (increase in relative body thickness or plumpness) in most fishes. The expected range of 2.5 < b < 3.5 is confirmed. Mean estimates of b outside this range are often based on only one or two weight–length relationships per species. However, true cases of strong allometric growth do exist and three examples are given. Within species, a plot of log a vs b can be used to detect outliers in weight–length relationships. An equation to calculate mean condition factors from weight–length relationships is given as Kmean ¼ 100aL b)3 . Relative weight Wrm ¼ 100W/ (amL b m ) can be used for comparing the condition of individuals across populations, where am is the geometric mean of a and bm is the mean of b across all available weight–length relationships for a given species. Twelve recommendations for proper use and presentation of weight–length relationships, condition factors and relative weight are given.

N. Coulson

Lawyers, according to Edmund Burke, are bad historians. He was referring to an unwillingness, rather than an inaptitude, on the part of early nineteenth-century English lawyers to concern themselves with the past: for contemporary jurisprudence was a pure and isolated science wherein law appeared as a body of rules, based upon objective criteria, whose nature and very existence were independent of considerations of time and place. Despite the influence of the historical school of Western jurisprudence, Burke's observation is generally valid for Middle East studies. Muslim jurisprudence in its traditional form provides an extreme example of a legal science divorced from historical considerations. Law, in classical Islamic theory, is the revealed will of God, a divinely ordained system preceding, and not preceded by, the Muslim state controlling, but not controlled by, Muslim society. There can thus be no relativistic notion of the law itself evolving as an historical phenomenon closely tied with the progress of society. The increasing number of nations that are largely Muslim or have a Muslim head of state, emphasizes the growing political importance of the Islamic world, and, as a result, the desirability of extending and expanding the understanding and appreciation of their culture and belief systems. Since history counts for much among Muslims and what happened in 632 or 656 is still a live issue, a journalistic familiarity with present conditions is not enough; there must also be some awareness of how the past has molded the present. This book is designed to give the reader a clear picture. But where there are gaps, obscurities, and differences of opinion, these are also indicated.

Richard Rothstein

J. Law, James Martin Edward Boyle, F. Harris et al.

The prevalence and the natural history of primary speech and language delays were two of four domains covered in a systematic review of the literature related to screening for speech and language delay carried out for the NHS in the UK. The structure and process of the full literature review is introduced and criteria for inclusion in the two domains are specified. The resulting data set gave 16 prevalence estimates generated from 21 publications and 12 natural history studies generated from 18 publications. Results are summarized for six subdivisions of primary speech and language delays: (1) speech and/or language, (2) language only, (3) speech only, (4) expression with comprehension, (5) expression only and (6) comprehension only. Combination of the data suggests that both concurrent and predictive case definition can be problematic. Prediction improves if language is taken independently of speech and if expressive and receptive language are taken together. The results are discussed in terms of the need to develop a model of prevalence based on risk of subsequent difficulties.

Noam Kolt

The prospect of artificial superintelligence -- AI agents that can generally outperform humans in cognitive tasks and economically valuable activities -- will transform the legal order as we know it. Operating autonomously or under only limited human oversight, AI agents will assume a growing range of roles in the legal system. First, in making consequential decisions and taking real-world actions, AI agents will become de facto subjects of law. Second, to cooperate and compete with other actors (human or non-human), AI agents will harness conventional legal instruments and institutions such as contracts and courts, becoming consumers of law. Third, to the extent AI agents perform the functions of writing, interpreting, and administering law, they will become producers and enforcers of law. These developments, whenever they ultimately occur, will call into question fundamental assumptions in legal theory and doctrine, especially to the extent they ground the legitimacy of legal institutions in their human origins. Attempts to align AI agents with extant human law will also face new challenges as AI agents will not only be a primary target of law, but a core user of law and contributor to law. To contend with the advent of superintelligence, lawmakers -- new and old -- will need to be clear-eyed, recognizing both the opportunity to shape legal institutions as society braces for superintelligence and the reality that, in the longer run, this may be a joint human-AI endeavor.

Mikhail G. Katz

Infinitesimals have seen ups and downs in their tumultuous history. In the 18th century, d'Alembert set the tone by describing infinitesimals as chimeras. Some adversaries of infinitesimals, including Moigno and Connes, picked up on the term. We highlight the work of Cauchy, Noël, Poisson and Riemann. We also chronicle reactions by Moigno, Lamarle and Cantor, and signal the start of a revival with Peano.

Kiwhan Song, Boyuan Chen, Max Simchowitz et al.

Classifier-free guidance (CFG) is a key technique for improving conditional generation in diffusion models, enabling more accurate control while enhancing sample quality. It is natural to extend this technique to video diffusion, which generates video conditioned on a variable number of context frames, collectively referred to as history. However, we find two key challenges to guiding with variable-length history: architectures that only support fixed-size conditioning, and the empirical observation that CFG-style history dropout performs poorly. To address this, we propose the Diffusion Forcing Transformer (DFoT), a video diffusion architecture and theoretically grounded training objective that jointly enable conditioning on a flexible number of history frames. We then introduce History Guidance, a family of guidance methods uniquely enabled by DFoT. We show that its simplest form, vanilla history guidance, already significantly improves video generation quality and temporal consistency. A more advanced method, history guidance across time and frequency further enhances motion dynamics, enables compositional generalization to out-of-distribution history, and can stably roll out extremely long videos. Project website: https://boyuan.space/history-guidance

Avinash Agarwal, Manisha J. Nene

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into telecommunications infrastructure introduces novel risks, such as algorithmic bias and unpredictable system behavior, that fall outside the scope of traditional cybersecurity and data protection frameworks. This paper introduces a precise definition and a detailed typology of telecommunications AI incidents, establishing them as a distinct category of risk that extends beyond conventional cybersecurity and data protection breaches. It argues for their recognition as a distinct regulatory concern. Using India as a case study for jurisdictions that lack a horizontal AI law, the paper analyzes the country's key digital regulations. The analysis reveals that India's existing legal instruments, including the Telecommunications Act, 2023, the CERT-In Rules, and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, focus on cybersecurity and data breaches, creating a significant regulatory gap for AI-specific operational incidents, such as performance degradation and algorithmic bias. The paper also examines structural barriers to disclosure and the limitations of existing AI incident repositories. Based on these findings, the paper proposes targeted policy recommendations centered on integrating AI incident reporting into India's existing telecom governance. Key proposals include mandating reporting for high-risk AI failures, designating an existing government body as a nodal agency to manage incident data, and developing standardized reporting frameworks. These recommendations aim to enhance regulatory clarity and strengthen long-term resilience, offering a pragmatic and replicable blueprint for other nations seeking to govern AI risks within their existing sectoral frameworks.

Homayoun Sadeghi-Bazargani, Ali Jafari-Khounigh, Hamid Sharifi et al.

Background — Travel restrictions and adhering to health protocols while traveling was among the key strategies to combat COVID-19 pandemic. Objective — The present study aims to measure and evaluate travel patterns and compliance with COVID-19 prevention protocols during traveling. Methods — In this cross-sectional study, 589 individuals from the capitals of six provinces of Iran were included in the study using the cluster sampling method. There were 40 clusters. For data analysis, the mean value of responses in each individual was calculated for each section of the questionnaire. Results — The response rate was 92% (589/640). Of all participants, 309 (52.5%) were women. The mean age of study participants was 42.84 years (SD=16.59). Among participants, 355 (60.3%) had a travel history during the COVID-19 pandemic. We revealed statistically significant relationships of the travel history with age (P<0.001), education level (P<0.001), and province (P<0.001). No statistically significant relationships of the travel history with socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and occupation subgroup were detected (P>0.05). The majority of study participants (38.5%) traveled for recreational purposes. Conclusion: According to our findings, unnecessary travel was not avoided in Iran during the COVID-19 pandemic. Most of the participants who traveled during the COVID-19 pandemic did not follow safety precautions. Thus, some of the most important issues such as cultural influences, different risk tolerance levels among people, law enforcement, and stricter oversight by decision makers need to be taken into account.

Fred Angelo Batan Garcia, Massimo Ricotti, Kazuyuki Sugimura

We model the formation of star clusters in a dwarf galaxy progenitor during the first 700 Myr of cosmic history using a cosmological radiation-hydrodynamic simulation with a sub-grid star formation efficiency (SFE) model calibrated from AU-scale radiation-MHD simulations of molecular clouds with varying mass, density, and metallicity. In comparison to a constant SFE model, our model yields more bursty star formation, a more abundant massive star cluster population, and overall a higher stellar mass. Clouds reach SFEs up to 80\%, forming bound star clusters (densities $\sim10^{2-4} ~{\rm M_\odot\:pc^{-2}}$, radii $\lesssim 3~{\rm pc}$) resembling those observed by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in strongly lensed galaxies. Star clusters follow a flat power-law mass function ${\rm d}N/{\rm d}\log M \propto M^\Gamma$ with slope $\Gamma \sim -0.4$. The most massive star clusters ($10^{4-5} ~{\rm M_\odot}$) grow through mergers and have metallicity spreads of $0.05 - 0.1$ dex that roughly scale with mass. The second burst of star formation produce loosely bound star clusters with higher metallicities: $-1.95 < \log(Z/{\rm Z_\odot}) < -1.50$ at lower SFEs (2 - 20\%). At $z \sim 8.7$, a nuclear star cluster (NSC) is seeded, growing 83\% of its mass ($2.4 \times 10^5 ~{\rm M_\odot}$, $20\%$ of the galaxy's stellar mass) through mergers with pre-existing clusters and the rest through in-situ star formation. The early formation of NSCs has interesting implications for seeding supermassive black holes and the population of _little red dots_ recently discovered by JWST at $z \gtrsim 5$.

S. Lonskaya

Objective: to theoretically substantiate the basic principles of methodology of a new interdisciplinary area of socio-humanities – the digital history of law; to demonstrate the heuristic potential of digital technologies in legal historical sciences.Methods: the study is based on systemic, formal-logical, and comparative general scientific methods.Results: it is concluded that the methodology of the digital history of law is based, first of all, on the source-centric approach, which considers a source as a macro-object of humanitarian and social sciences, through which information exchange takes place (O.M. Medushevskaya’s concept of cognitive history). Secondly, it is based on the combination of traditional methods of legal history with digital techniques and technologies and methods based on them – within a research program of historical-legal (historical-juridical) source studies. The article attempts to summarize the existing digital technologies and techniques, as well as methods based on them, as applied to legal historical sciences; their heuristic potential is shown in case studies.Scientific novelty: for the first time in the Russian legal history science, the author substantiates the methodology of the digital history of law as an interdisciplinary field that studies the past of state and law using digital information and communication technologies and tools.Practical significance: under the shifts in socio-humanities (digital, linguistic, visual ones, etc.), which have become relevant in recent years, and the development of the digital type of social communication, methodological approaches to obtaining new knowledge are changing, new interdisciplinary branches of scientific knowledge are emerging, as well as new requirements for the qualification of researchers. The ongoing changes affect legal historical sciences: digital history of law is formed as an interdisciplinary area within digital humanities, at the confluence of history, legal science, and information science. The understanding and application of digital technologies and the scientific cognition methods based on them in legal historical research open up new opportunities for legal historians in determining the directions of their scientific research and obtaining new scientific results. This ultimately expands our understanding of historical and legal facts, phenomena and processes.

Robert van Leeuwen

The early history of string theory is marked by a shift from strong interaction physics to quantum gravity. The first string models and associated theoretical framework were formulated in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the context of the S-matrix program for the strong interactions. In the mid-1970s, the models were reinterpreted as a potential theory unifying the four fundamental forces. This paper provides a historical analysis of how string theory was developed out of S-matrix physics, aiming to clarify how modern string theory, as a theory detached from experimental data, grew out of an S-matrix program that was strongly dependent upon observable quantities. Surprisingly, the theoretical practice of physicists already turned away from experiment before string theory was recast as a potential unified quantum gravity theory. With the formulation of dual resonance models (the "hadronic string theory"), physicists were able to determine almost all of the models' parameters on the basis of theoretical reasoning. It was this commitment to "non-arbitrariness", i.e., a lack of free parameters in the theory, that initially drove string theorists away from experimental input, and not the practical inaccessibility of experimental data in the context of quantum gravity physics. This is an important observation when assessing the role of experimental data in string theory.

Julius Kirshner

Lo studio si concentra su un consilium del giurista perugino Onofrio Bartolini, intervenuto in una disputa tra la località di Castiglione e la città di Arezzo negli anni Settanta del Trecento. Al centro della questione vi è il caso di una donna di Castiglione, andata in sposa ad un cittadino di Arezzo, mantenendo però la proprietà di un immobile nella sua città d’origine. Castiglione sostiene che tale immobile sia soggetto alla sua tassazione e debba versare a Castiglione l’imposta diretta (libra), mentre Arezzo replica che, a seguito delle nozze, la donna ha perduto la cittadinanza castiglionese, divenendo aretina, con la conseguenza che le sue proprietà sono ora soggette alla libra del Comune di Arezzo. Bartolini, seguendo i principi formulati da Bartolo sulla cittadinanza della mulier alibi nupta, conclude che la giurisdizione in materia di imposizione fiscale rimanga a Castiglione, ove la donna conserva la propria cittadinanza.

Jan Beránek, Tereza Blažková

Conference report

Dikran M. Zenginkuzucu

Under international law, it is each State’s obligation and responsibility to recognize the most serious crimes committed against the international community, as well as criminalize and conduct effective investigations and prosecution of them. The establishment of a permanent International Criminal Court, whose well-known complementarity principle is one of its central tenets, has finally emerged as a pillar in the fight against the impunity of international crimes. The article derives from various implementations a test for determining the characteristics and functions of the correction function of international law, thus presents the argument that the Rome Statute’s complementary role provides a corrective function.

Amedeo Balbi, Claudio Grimaldi

The probability of detecting technosignatures (i.e., evidence of technological activity beyond Earth) increases with their longevity, or the time interval over which they manifest. Therefore, the assumed distribution of longevities has some bearing on the chances of success of technosignature searches, as well as on the inferred age of technosignatures following a first contact. Here, we investigate the possibility that the longevity of technosignatures conforms to the so-called Lindy’s law, whereby, at any time, their remaining life expectancy is roughly proportional to their age. We show that, if Lindy’s law applies, the general tenet that the first detected technosignature ought to be very long lived may be overruled. We conclude by discussing the number of emitters that had to appear, over the history of the Galaxy, in order for one of them to be detectable today from Earth.

D. Pashentsev

The article is devoted to the scientific work of Serafim V. Yushkov, the founder of the science of the history of state and law. Based on the study of documents from the archival fund of the Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation, the path of the scientist in life and science, his contribution to the study of the history of the ancient Russian state and law, source work on the study and publication of monuments of domestic law, including the Russkaya Pravda, the creation of a training course on the history of state and law are consistently revealed. Special attention is paid to the influence of the works of S. V. Yushkov on the formation of the history of the state and law of foreign countries. It is emphasized that it was through the efforts of S. V. Yushkov that the prevailing ideas about the subject and method of historical and legal science, the periodization of the history of the national state and law, and the research space characteristic of it were formed. The information on the criticism of S. V. Yushkov's works by other scientists of his time, on the discussion of these works at the meetings of the Academic Council of the All-Union Institute of Legal Sciences are given. The authors came to conclusion that through the efforts of S. V. Yushkov domestic scientists received for further research a thoroughly elaborated publication from a scientific standpoint of the fundamental monuments of ancient Russian law. The scientist's work significantly influenced further research in the field of the history of state and law, not only in our country, but also in foreign countries. Thanks to the students of S. V. Yushkov, who continued his work, an advanced historical and legal science was formed, and today it successfully performs its most important functions.

Leonid I. Gurvits

Space Very Long Baseline Interferometry is a radio astronomy technique distinguished by a record-high angular resolution reaching single-digit microseconds of arc. The paper provides a brief account of the history of developments of this technique over the period 1960s-2020s.

Doreen Fraser, Maria Papageorgiou

The formulation of a measurement theory for relativistic quantum field theory (QFT) has recently been an active area of research. In contrast to the asymptotic measurement framework that was enshrined in QED, the new proposals aim to supply a measurement framework for measurements in local spacetime regions. This paper surveys episodes in the history of quantum theory that contemporary researchers have identified as precursors to their own work and discusses how they laid the groundwork for current approaches to local measurement theory for QFT.