This essay traces Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s attempt to deploy cold (discursive) language in order to evoke warm (musical or gestural) language. Rousseau associates warm speech with the eloquence of the ancients and opposes it to cold speech, the language that predominates in modern societies, especially in intellectual or philosophical discourse. Cold speech cannot be the speech of a flourishing republic, but it can describe the conditions for the creation of a space within which a republican language might emerge. Warm speech is the cultural language of republican citizens. It operates to ensure that public deliberation (the procedural general will) is guided by the common interest (the substantive general will) and that the interests citizens hold in common are privileged over any particular interests they may have independent of, or apart from, their fellow citizens. The general will is not (only) general because, in substance, it corresponds to the common good. It is not (only) general because it is the result of the active will of all citizens. It is general because it speaks the language of generality; it emerges from a special orientation or intentionality born of and communicated through warm speech. This suggests a three-dimensional theory of democratic legitimacy—procedural, substantive, and ethical—that offers significant advantages over formal approaches to democratic legitimacy grounded in public reason.
Метою дослідження є розробка концепції впровадження інноваційних європейських практик диджиталізації як ключовий чинник забезпечення соціально-економічної безпеки в умовах глобальних викликів. За допомогою методів ризик-орієнтованого підходу, системного аналізу та моделювання розглянуто шляхи використання інноваційних європейських практик диджиталізації. Результати досліджень: 1. Здійснено діагностику проблем, які виникають при сучасному аналізі взаємозв’язку диджиталізації та соціально-економічної безпеки. 2. Проаналізовано напрями розвитку технологій, які можуть значно підвищити соціально-економічну безпеку. Глобальні виклики, такі як пандемії, економічні кризи, зміни клімату, можуть суттєво впливати на процеси диджиталізації та їхній вплив на соціально-економічну безпеку. Наукова новизна дослідження полягає в тому, що європейські практики диджиталізації виступають важливим інструментом забезпечення соціально-економічної безпеки в умовах глобальних викликів, у зв’язку з чим важливо дослідити новітні підходи, які можна запропонувати для сталого розвитку.
Доведено, що ШІ може аналізувати великі обсяги даних для прогнозування економічних криз, природних катастроф або соціальних конфліктів, що дозволяє урядам і компаніям заздалегідь підготуватися до можливих викликів; використання ШІ для оптимізації виробництва, логістики та управління ресурсами допомагає зменшити витрати й підвищити економічну стійкість. Хмарні рішення надають доступ до важливих ресурсів і послуг із будь-якої точки світу, що забезпечує безперебійну роботу бізнесу та державних установ у разі надзвичайних ситуацій. Хмарні платформи забезпечують ефективне управління великими обсягами даних, що необхідно для ухвалення стратегічних рішень. Практичне значення дослідження полягає в подоланні ключових викликів і використанні можливостей для подальшого впровадження інноваційних європейських практик диджиталізації як ключовий чинник забезпечення соціально-економічної безпеки в умовах глобальних викликів. Використання інноваційних європейських практик має значний потенціал, щоб прискорити досягнення ЦСР, але потребує врахування можливих ризиків і викликів.
Education (General), Theory and practice of education
The article is devoted to the poetics of contemporary American writer Lyn Hejinian (1941–2024), considered one of the most consistent successors of Gertrude Stein's experimentalism in Anglophone literary writing. The study encompasses all stages of Hejinian’s poetic creativity: from early experiences of “language writing” in the 1960–70s, autobiographical texts and collective works of the 1980–90s, to theoretical and poetic quests in the first decades of the 21st century. The writer's main interest is the persistence and impermanence of memory and the subject, as well as the role of writing in their preservation and transformation. Descriptions of the writing process as a driving force of memory and experience come to the fore here. Syntax acts as the materialization of temporality in writing. Texts in a variety of formats explore natural and cultural worlds brought to life by language. Many of Hejinian's texts, both theoretical and artistic, explore the problem of language as a social space, as a philosophical search and as political pragmatics, as well as the problem of the relationship of time to language and language to time. The book The Language of Inquiry has become a kind of manifesto for poetic language, which is the “language of inquiry.” A special place in the book is occupied by essays about Gertrude Stein, which actualize the writing practices of the great American modernist in the contemporary context of language-oriented poetics. In her work of the recent years, Hejinian increasingly turns to social themes, never ceasing to experiment with the boundaries of the poetic. She puts forward a theory of so-called “allegorical activism,” which is understood as “artistic and political practice in the service of activating creative potential in everyday life.”
The book under review is a new monograph by L.S. Voronkov ‘Liberal values in theory and practice. On the issues of intellectual decolonization of Russia’, published in 2024. The reviewer discusses in detail several key topics and central ideas of the book under consideration. The first section covers the author’s views on a set of problems related to the specifics of power relations and the role of political elites in Western liberal democratic states. It also highlights the political and economic contradictions inherent to the liberal democratic model of social development, propagated by the countries of the ‘collective West’ in order to maintain their own dominance in the system of international relations. It is shown that, along with economic and political instruments, Western elites do not disdain practices of cultural hegemony, arising from the colonialism and neocolonialism. The second section considers L.S. Voronkov’s views on the issues of intellectual colonialism. Special attention is paid to the role of Western approaches within the theory of international relations in legitimizing and promoting the interests of the United States and its allies. It is shown that these approaches, positioned as strictly scientific, actually represented a sophisticated system aimed at concealing the real economic interests of Western countries. In this context, the book by L.S. Voronkov is of particular interest since it makes a strong case for the development of Russia’s own perspective on international relations, with due regard to its specific historical features. Although some author’s conclusions and observations can be contested, L.S. Voronkov’s monograph will hopefully contribute to the emergence of Russian sovereign international relations studies.
Introduction: Leaders can use ethical leadership to affect the organizational performance of employees. Returning to ethical leadership models is required due to the distinct intellectual perspective of Iranian society which can affect the effectiveness of employees in the organization considering their intrinsic motivation. Therefore, this research aimed to provide a model for evaluating the mediating function of intrinsic motivation in the relationship between ethical leadership and creative employee behavior in social security treatment management in Mazandaran Province.Methods: The required data were collected through a qualitative review and evaluation of studies on ethical leadership, in-depth interviews with senior managers of social security treatment management in Mazandaran Province, using the analysis method Grounded Theory with Glazer’s approach, as well as dealing with coding, categorization, and presenting a conceptual model.Results: Three selective codes, 15 core codes, and 94 open codes were included in the generated model. Ethical leadership variables included organizational, human, political, cultural, and moral factors. The creative behavior variable included individual, group, and organizational factors. The intrinsic motivation variable comprised components such as working conditions, rules and regulations, management and leadership style, interactions with colleagues, personality traits, empowerment, and job nature.Conclusion: Since Iranian employees are raised in an Islamic-Iranian culture, ethical leadership could have a positive effect on strengthening their performance and behavior.
The present study aimed to identify and classify factors affecting women's free time with an emphasis on physical activity using an interpretive structural modeling approach. This study is applied research in terms of orientation and mixed in terms of research philosophy. The statistical population of this study included free-time experts, sports management experts, and experts in holding family and women's sports events. Theoretical sampling was used to identify the number of people and find the research direction. A theoretical saturation was achieved after conducting 15 in-depth interviews. In the qualitative section of the study, an in-depth interview tool was used to collect data. In the quantitative section, a questionnaire was used. To analyze the data in the qualitative section, three overlapping processes of open, axial, and selective coding were used. To analyze the data in the quantitative section, the interpretive structural modeling method was used in the ISM software. The results of the qualitative section revealed that the factors affecting women's free time with an emphasis on physical activity include 115 open codes, 33 concepts, and 14 primary categories. The results of the structural-interpretive model in the quantitative section also revealed the understanding of the need for women's sports, effective equipment and facilities, the socialization status of women's free time, and the income and financial status of women at the first individual level. The factors of the second level family’s social status, creating organizations for women's free time, and increasing women's awareness of free time were in the second level. Increasing and promoting physical activities in the form of free time for women and increasing people's socialization were placed in the third level. Financial support in the private and public sectors, education and paying attention to related research findings, and improvement of individual mental state were in the fourth level, and improving living conditions were in the fifth level.
1. Introduction
Physical activity and sports are one of the best most effective ways to spend free time among women and girls. It can lead to their physical and mental health. Also, the inclusion of sports in women's and girls' free time requires increasing the level of awareness of people in society, accurate and correct management and planning, and appropriate facilities and infrastructure. Thus, it is essential to conduct detailed and comprehensive studies in this area to identify the challenges and limitations that women and girls face in doing physical activities and sports in their free time and to provide appropriate solutions to solve them. A comprehensive model should be provided to officials to improve the quality of free time of women and girls of the families with an approach based on physical and sports activities. Given what was stated, it is crucial to know how women and girls spend their free time as it ensures their mental and physical health and is an effective means for creating their physical, intellectual, and ethical growth. It will prevent many social deviations. Thus, the present study aims to identify and classify the factors affecting women's free time with an emphasis on physical activities using an interpretive structural modeling approach.
2. Literature Review
Several studies have approved the benefits of exercise and physical activities on physical and mental health and preventing chronic diseases caused by a sedentary life (Lopez Gabbard and Rodriguez, 2013). Studies have revealed that people who express high levels of extraversion are more likely to participate in physical activity. However, people who express high levels of neuroticism tend to be less physically active (Keklainen, 2022 & Gottold, 2018). The way of spending free time plays a major role in people's mobility and physical activity, so the change in lifestyle due to the change in technology and modern life has reduced physical activities and people have been exposed to complications caused by it. Results of the studies indicate that a reduction in physical and sports activities is greater in females than in males (Valdelina et al., 2010). In this regard, Fakhri et al. (1401) examined the structural model of the effect of sports-based free time on the social self-efficacy of students with the mediating role of spiritual intelligence. The results revealed that sports-based free time positively affects social self-efficacy with the mediating role of spiritual intelligence. The results revealed that by increasing free time along with sports and physical activity and improving the spiritual intelligence of students, their social self-efficacy also increases and vice versa. Pourzabih Sarhami et al. (2023) reported that gender discrimination should be minimized and women's sports and recreation per capita should be increased with correct policy-making. Special attention has been paid to issues such as improving women's movement literacy in society, modeling and improving public attitudes toward women's physical and sports activities, diversifying recreational and sports activities for women, providing tax and insurance discounts for sports activists, and other cases, which were mentioned in the study. Giles and Uncesio (2020) conducted a study on single women's free time during the coronavirus outbreak. In this critical study, the researchers analyzed the impacts of these practices on their free time in two single, professional, childless women living alone. The researchers argued that in the current pandemic, women who do not have caregiving responsibilities may face more resentment or humiliation due to being engaged in regular free time activities. Researchers indicated that rejection from social and caring networks can cause feelings of selfishness, shame, and fear when participating in free time. Gimmez et al. (2021) investigated the sports and free time activities of Muslim women and stated that sporting events can foster nationalism. An analysis of current political and public discourses on Muslim women's sports and free time showed that this group is facing many limitations. Political regulations and attitudes interfere not only with the recreational activities of Muslim women but also with their clothing and movements. It is recommended that theoretical perspectives such as the social justice perspective in sports and free time activities of Muslim women be presented and supported so they can have equal access to sports and physical activities in their free time.
3. Methodology
The present study is applied research in terms of orientation, comparative in terms of approach, descriptive in terms of purpose, and mixed (qualitative-quantitative) research in terms of research philosophy. Using the grounded theory method with Glazer's approach, the factors affecting women's free time were identified and classified with an emphasis on physical activities, and their mutual effects were investigated using interpretive structural modeling. The statistical population of this study in both sections included free-time experts, sports management experts, and experts in holding family and women's sports events. Theoretical sampling was used to identify the number of people. Theoretical saturation was achieved after conducting 12 in-depth and unstructured interviews, but the interviews continued up to 15 people for more confidence. In the qualitative section of the study, the in-depth interview tool was used to collect data. In the quantitative section of the study, a questionnaire was used as a research tool. The indicators of this questionnaire are adapted from the data of the qualitative section of the study. Accordingly, the extracted codes were placed in the form of questions and designed as a questionnaire. It was also prepared in the form of a questionnaire whose content validity was confirmed by 10 sports management professors who were outside the sample of the qualitative group. Accordingly, based on the grounded theory, 115 open codes, 33 concepts, and 14 primary categories were identified and categorized. Then, to examine the relationship between the sub-categories of the questionnaire, a structured self-interaction matrix was developed. In this step, the respondents were asked to specify the type of pairwise connection of the factors based on the introduced codes (V, A, X, O).
4. Results
Finally, using the final access matrix, the themes of factors affecting women's free time were classified with an emphasis on physical activities. Based on Figure 1, understanding of the need for women's sports(D), effective equipment and facilities (E), the socialization status of women's free time (K), and the income and financial status of women (M) were placed in the first level, individual factors (B) were placed in the second level. The family’s social status (A), creating organizations for women's free time (F), and increasing women's awareness of free time (J) were placed in the third level. Increasing and promoting physical activities in the form of free time for women (C) and increasing people's socialization (G), financial support in the private and public sectors (I), education and paying attention to related research findings (L), and improvement of individual mental state were placed in the fourth level, and the improvement of living conditions (H) was placed in the fifth level.
5. Conclusion
Based on the results of this study and the population of women in Iran, and knowing their special characteristics and conditions in the Islamic country of Iran, it is necessary to have proper knowledge of the current status before any planning. Also, appropriate local and government measures should be taken to meet their needs and demands by identifying their real problems and needs. n The high-level planners of the country, who are mostly men, should have a better understanding and a more complete insight into the physical activity status of women and their demands. Hence, since public sports and increasing women's participation in them play a vital role in their health and society’s health, and it is useful for the individual and social economy in reducing treatment costs, it is recommended that health planners increase the participation of women in sports and physical activity in their free time. Also, considering all aspects, it is necessary to develop appropriate and comprehensive programs and applications that compensate for the existing deficiencies, provide the conditions for more participation of women in this area, and provide exercise for all people.
У статті проаналізовано та представлено основні слабкі місця щодо взаємодії стейкхолдерів в освітньому середовищі. Здійснено аналіз наукових джерел, і вітчизняних, і зарубіжних, щодо сутності понять «стейкхолдер», «внутрішній стейкхолдер», «зовнішній стейкхолдер», оскільки немає чіткого розуміння участі цих учасників в освітньому середовищі. Визначено прямий та непрямий вплив стейкхолдерів на якість освітнього процесу та формування освітнього продукту. Представлене дослідження зумовлене непростою на сьогодні ситуацією в Україні, яка безпосередньо впливає на організацію освітнього процесу, на запити бізнес-структур, на виникнення нових професій, яких потребує ринок праці, та зникнення професій або їх трансформацію до нового поділу праці в суспільстві. У ході емпіричного дослідження було встановлено слабкі місця в освітньому процесі, які потребують інноваційних підходів ворганізації, зокрема набуття науково-педагогічними працівниками навичок нових педагогічних ролей; урахування запитів зовнішніх стейкхолдерів, а саме роботодавців, бізнес-структур, із якими має бути тісна співпраця щодо створення освітнього продукту; практико-орієнтованого навчання, що сприяє формуванню фахівця як особистості, яка готова до викликів сьогодення та легко може трансформувати свої знання, вміння й навички, орієнтуючись на зміни в суспільстві.
Education (General), Theory and practice of education
. Introduction Theater, as one of the literary types, has created a link between literature and performing arts. There have been two types of theater, comedy and tragedy. In the past, the type of tragedy was superior to the type of comedy. In the seventeenth century in France, with the appearance of Molière, comedy flourished and a revolution took place in the classical theater. In Iran, playwriting does not have much history. But its traditional and religious forms have always existed. In this article, we have done a comparative study of two comedy plays, Molière's The Miser and Akhundzadeh's The Tale of the Miserly Man. In the two studied works, miserliness is shown as one of the biggest moral pests that not only affects family relationships, but also involves social relationships.In this article, we have benefited from the theories of Michel Viegnes in the field of theater and his classification of types of humor and the theories of Ménandre, the ancient Greek playwright, in the field of classification of the characters of classical plays, and by examining and comparing the content, character, we have discussed the structure of two works to see how and in what cases Akhundzadeh imitated Molière and what was his purpose in writing this play.In fact, the era of comedy flourishing can be considered the post-Renaissance era and the 17th century. With the emergence of playwrights such as Molière, it became possible to pass from the rule of tragedy to the flourishing era of comedy, and the kings and princes of tragedy gave way to trivial characters of comedy. Molière had a significant influence on the playwrights of the world and also influenced the Iranian theater during the constitutional period. The plays of Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzadeh (1228-1295), an Iranian writer, thinker and critic, were among the first plays written following European plays. The title, structure, characters, and content of his play The Tale of the Miserly Man also convey his impression of Molière's The Miser. Methodology Comparative literature arose in France in the nineteenth century. Researchers of French comparative literature or the "French school of comparative literature" emphasized the issue of "relationship" between literatures. According to Guyard, "the researcher of comparative literature should focus on the exchange of themes, opinions, books or feelings between two or more literatures." (Guyard, 1958:12) With Guyard and after him Pierre Brunel, comparative literature becomes more of a science than a type of literary criticism. In addition to the issue of historical investigation, Yves Chevrel also brings the issue of boutiques into this topic. In his opinion, "comparative literature should add comparative boutique studies to its studies." (Chevrel, 2016: 48) In the American school of comparative literature, which is led by René Wellek (1903-1995), the historical study is abandoned and the focus is placed on the works themselves: "Everything It should be examined from the perspective of a literary work." (Brunel & Chevrel, 1989: 189-190) As mentioned, Akhundzadeh was influenced by Molière and the similarity between these two works is not accidental. Therefore, in this article, our research will be comparative literature based on the French school and we will discuss the influence of thoughts and themes and the comparative style of two works. To examine the types of humor in these two plays, we will rely on the theories of Michel Viegnes, a French writer and researcher, and to examine the characters of the plays, we will rely on the theories of Ménandre, the ancient Greek playwright. Discussion 3-1. Content reviewAs one of the freedom-loving playwrights of the Qajar era, Akhundzadeh criticized the traditional customs of the society through theater. Moliere's theater can also be defined as a realistic reflection of the performance of the members of a society. In this section, we will discuss the socio-political content of the plays and the analysis of the characters. 3-1-1. Socio-political and anthropological satireMoliere's play The Miser and Akhundzadeh's play are both social comedies. Moliere's The Miser depicts the bourgeois society of Paris during the reign of Louis XIV. Harpagon is a typical example of the 17th century bourgeois, who later became a type of personality in such a way that today in France, a stingy person is called Harpagon. Akhundzadeh's story of the miserly man also portrays the society of Iran in the early 13th century. In their works, these two playwrights describe the characters with a realistic, anthropological and sociological perspective and thus study different human aspects. In the preface of Tartuffe, Molière clearly states that "comedy can be effective in reforming some customs and traditions." (Molière, 2016: 5) In fact, for both authors, the main purpose of art is to cultivate positive qualities in human beings. According to Akhundzadeh: "It should be known that what is meant by the art of "comedy" is moral refinement. It means knowing the ugly and beautiful of human nature by looking at the shape and resemblance" (Adamiyat, 1349: 63).3-1-2. Personality psychologyAccording to the theories of Ménandre, the ancient Greek dramatist, the characters of the classical drama belong to three categories of people: 1) young people who intend to get married but face obstacles; 2) A slave and servant who is very clever and cunning and removes obstacles to marriage; and 3) secondary funny characters that provide joy and happiness in the theater scene. (Blanchard, 2000: 22-24) The main characters of both plays under our study are miserly and domineering old men, young people in love and simple-hearted, clever and cunning servants, and wise women. The choice of such characters actually shows the classicity of these two plays.Boileau emphasizes that "in Molière's plays, humor is created due to the mocking aspect that is rooted in the psychology of the character" (Conesa, 1995: 146).3-2. Structural investigationAkhundzadeh, like Molière, is not only concerned with showing some social and moral problems, but also emphasizes the artistic aspect of writing. In his plays, although he maintained the "unity of action", Molière questioned the "unity of place" and "unity of time". In other words, he followed the principle of classical theater according to which the plot should revolve around a single event. But refuse to limit this event to one day and one place. Akhundzadeh also wrote his play The Tale of the Miserly Man in a classical style and in five chambers (curtains) and did not limit it to a fixed place and time of one day.3-2-1. Language and styleThe language of Akhundzadeh's play, like Molière, is close to reality and effective. The story of the play and the dialogues of the actors are told with sweet and attractive expressions. In that period, the written language and the spoken language were significantly different. In this play, Akhundzadeh tried to distance himself from the common prose of his era and use spoken language for the characters. Regarding the similarities of the language of the two plays in question, it can be pointed out that the language used is vernacular. In this play, Molière's language is a natural and spontaneous language that shows the reality of the present and is performed quickly and impromptu by the actors. Another characteristic of Molière's language is his writing rhythm, to the point where we sometimes see a special rhythm in consecutive sentences and answers (Attaque des répliques).3-2-2. A combination of humorWriters and theoreticians have always tried to classify its types since the emergence of comic theater. In this research, we try to explain the types of humor from Michel Viegnes’s point of view. Viegnes divides humor into three types: personality humor, verbal humor, and situational humor. (Viegnes, 1992: 88) Molière and Akhundzadeh have used all three types of humor in their plays.One of the theater techniques mentioned by Michel Viegnes is the monologue ou soliloque technique. With soliloque, in fact, the character "thinks out loud" (Viegnes, 1992: 60) and this issue provides reasons for laughter. Like Molière, Akhundzadeh used monologue to show the humor of a characterThe scope of comic language or verbal humor is very wide. And "Includes exaggeration and exaggeration, changes in the construction and shape of the language, playing with words." (Viegnes, 1992: 9) According to Michel Viegnes: "In all languages, people have laughed at people whose way of speaking is out of the norm." (Ibid.)According to Michel Viegnes, "situation comics go beyond speech and include all kinds of kicking, spinning jumps, spinning on heels, and...." (Viegnes, 1992: 98). Conclusion These two playwrights, in fact, study different human types and their disadvantages from a sociological and anthropological point of view, and depict the complexity of the human spirit in order to force the society of their age to think about their weaknesses through a humorous language.The style of both authors is classic, but it has undergone many changes and innovations. In fact, they present a mixture of comedy and tragedy to the audience.In this research, we come to the conclusion that with the help of comparative study, we can identify the roots of the currents of thought that influence the literature of the interior. With the help of comparative study, from an aesthetic, content and even theoretical point of view, literature can be studied not individually, but in its relationship with foreign literature. The comparison of the studied works is to test their similarities and convergences in order to consider literary phenomena in their transnational reality. Akhundzadeh's acceptance of this foreign genre, drama, and its rules, is important. In fact, with the help of this comparative study, we examined the entry and acceptance of a style, a theory, a theme in the literature of the country. Akhundzadeh's play is actually a kind of rewriting and literary representation in a transnational perspective. The purpose of literature is not only to connect with its reader and accept the work by him, but it is the influence of languages and thoughts on each other and the influence and influence, and as a result, progress and innovation in literature.
<p class="first" id="d416445e73">The biomedical crisis of COVID-19 in India has amplified several other crises, namely;
social, cultural, communal, religious, geographical, economic, political, racial and
gender. It is important to note that these crises are not new - they were already
socio-culturally embedded and functional in the pre-COVID-19 era. With the inception
of COVID-19, these crises have been further aggravated through the re-configuration
and re-systematisation of various forms of social, cultural, political, economic,
racial, geographical, religious and economic violence. With respect to these arguments,
this commentary focuses on how the outbreak of COVID-19 has led to an alarming rise
in racial hatred against the residents of Northeast India in the contemporary era.
Through socio-historically analysing the problematic rise of racial hatred, the commentary
also identifies the various ways through which the pandemic of COVID-19 is not only
functioning as a disease, but also as a “disease” of body-politics and racism.
</p>
Political theory, Social history and conditions. Social problems. Social reform
This paper aims to explain that the spread of the ideology of Islamism in the Middle East in recent decades has led to conflict, both intra and inter-religion that continues until today. From these Islamist groups, Hamas Movement and ISIS provided significant effects of the conflict are. This study is qualitative research. Conflict Theory of John Spanier (higt-politic conflict) used to analyze how the two groups model of ideological construction influenced the political and economic stability as well as conflict in the Middle East and the Islamic world. Based on the observations of these two groups, it can be found that theologically, Hamas adheres to religious doctrines which prompted him to undertake armed resistance against Israel. At the same time, ISIS is a militant group that is strongly influenced by religious doctrine. However, from the aspect of rigidity doctrine and strategy of the movement, both groups are much different. ISIS is an ultra-radical group hostile to all other communities and brutally attacked the community of which he considered infidels. While Hamas has a more soft ideology and commit acts of violence in the context of resistance against Israeli colonialism.
[Makalah ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan bahwa penyebaran ideologi Islamisme di Timur Tengah dalam beberapa dekade terakhir telah menyebabkan konflik, baik intra maupun antar-agama yang berlanjut hingga saat ini. Dari kelompok-kelompok Islam ini, Gerakan Hamas dan ISIS memberikan efek signifikan dari konflik tersebut. Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif. Teori Konflik John Spanier (konflik politik berskala tinggi) digunakan untuk menganalisis bagaimana model konstruksi ideologis kedua kelompok mempengaruhi stabilitas politik dan ekonomi serta konflik di Timur Tengah dan dunia Islam. Berdasarkan pengamatan kedua kelompok ini, dapat ditemukan bahwa secara teologis, Hamas menganut doktrin agama yang mendorong mereka untuk melakukan perlawanan bersenjata terhadap Israel. Pada saat yang sama, ISIS adalah kelompok militan yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh doktrin agama. Namun, dari aspek kekakuan doktrin dan strategi pergerakan, kedua kelompok jauh berbeda. ISIS adalah kelompok ultra-radikal yang memusuhi semua komunitas lain dan secara brutal menyerang komunitas yang dianggapnya sebagai orang kafir. Sementara Hamas memiliki ideologi yang lebih lunak dan melakukan tindakan kekerasan dalam konteks perlawanan terhadap kolonialisme Israel.]
Islam. Bahai Faith. Theosophy, etc., Social Sciences
In the mid-1950s-1960s the Soviet Orientalists were facing serious challenges. The collapse of the colonial system, the growth of national liberation movements, the entry of new forces that did not fit into the rigid framework of the Communist ideas about the revolutionary process, demanded realistic explanations of what was happening. The article attempts to consider some breakthrough ideas and assessments of historical events in the Middle East put forward by the Soviet experts. The review is primarily based on the publications of Soviet specialists published in the 1970’s. Among those who studied the new trends and tried to explain their further development were Soviet Arabists. At that time their circle was small. Among those who were engaged in political problems of the Arab world, one can name I.P. Belyaev, E.M. Primakov, G.I. Mirsky, A.M. Vasilyev. They had different backgrounds, but all had managed to form in their studies a fairly complete picture of political trends and state-building in the Arab world. Despite the domination of the official dogmas the leading Soviet researchers were able to present a realistic picture of the region, although their «untimely meditations» were presented in a form acceptable to the Communist ideology.The primitive division of society into the bourgeoisie, the proletariat, peasantry and landlords and the hopes for eventual development of communist parties worldwide both did not reflect the realities in the Third World countries and did not leave room for the Soviet Union there. Due to ideological reasons the USSR could not support nationalist movements abroad. Nevertheless, the Soviet leadership passed the first test for the ability to reassess their ideological stereotypes in the early 1950s, when the leaders of the Egyptian revolution turned to the USSR for military assistance. In order to justify the pragmatic choice in favor of supporting the new Arab nationalist leaders, the Soviet scholars developed the concept of three consecutive and co-dependent revolutionary flows: first, the national liberation movement overthrowing the colonial system; second, the world labor movement overthrowing the capitalist system politically; and, third, the world communist movement overthrowing the capitalist system in economic terms.It was also important for the Soviet leaders to explain the orientation of the young decolonized nationalist regimes towards the USSR, without using the argument of just political expediency. Such an explanation was the theory of the non-capitalist path of development or socialist orientation. It posed that capitalism cannot solve any of the problems of developing countries. Their interest in rapid overcoming of backwardness and maintaining national sovereignty cannot be combined with the choice of a capitalist development model. The theory of socialist orientation was based on original ideas of Marxism founders and further developed by Lenin who insisted that economically underdeveloped countries can with the help of the proletariat from advanced countries go directly to socialism bypassing capitalism.The reality of revolutions without the proletariat and the desire to take advantage of the anti-colonial struggle to establish full-scale presence of the USSR in the Middle Eats made the Soviet leadership more tolerant of scientists' attempts to realistically analyze regional trends and developments.For instance, in the Soviet era, politicians were tempted to explain all conflicts in the regions of the Third world, and particularly in the Middle East exclusively by the workings of imperialism. However, Soviet scholars, E.M. Primakov among them, warned in their studies of the dangers of such simplified estimates. Still relevant today also is G. Mirsky’s explanation of the major role the army plays in the politics of the Middle East. He argued that in the traditional societies of the region the army was the only modern, nationwide institution.The works of the Soviet scholars can help better understand contemporary trends. Their studies of driving forces of the revolutions in the Arab world, of the nationalistic regimes, of regional conflicts have not lost their relevance today. They warn the modern generation of researchers against simplistic conclusions, a temptation of politicized assessments and of ignoring the complexity of regional issues.
Animal Farm has been called George Orwell’s most ferocious propaganda (Voorhees, 1961 quoted in Jasim, M. H. and Aziz, Fatimah H). This novel is a satire referring to a communist regime persistently utilizing the kind of hypocritical propaganda merely for the purpose of keeping its totalitarian regime in power.. Animal Farm demonstrates more of such manipulative discourse, and this will be the focus of the study. The contribution of this study is that understanding manipulative discourse and its strategies gives a view of manipulative mechanism and thereby help people recognizing any hegemony form by those in power. The framework of the study applied Cognitive Pragmatics for Manipulative Discourse and Relevance Theory. The result of the study describes the characters that represent manipulative discourse as well as the types of the employed strategies (both global and local, both linguistic and non-linguistic ones). Manipulative discourses employed in the novel are produced or reproduced for two main general purposes. Firstly, the political discourses produced by Old Major is to convince all the animals of the necessity to fight against the human being for the freedom of the animals. The ideology exercised by the animals is anti-human ideology. Secondly, the manipulative discourses produced and reproduced by the pigs are to exercise their domination over the rest of the animals. The ideology of the pigs’ racism is exercised to gain more power, more privilege, and more access to the farm resources.
Education (General), Theory and practice of education