Hasil untuk "Logic"

J. Dijck, Thomas Poell

Over the past decade, social media platforms have penetrated deeply into the mech­anics of everyday life, affecting people's informal interactions, as well as institutional structures and professional routines. Far from being neutral platforms for everyone, social media have changed the conditions and rules of social interaction. In this article, we examine the intricate dynamic between social media platforms, mass media, users, and social institutions by calling attention to social media logic—the norms, strategies, mechanisms, and economies—underpin­ning its dynamics. This logic will be considered in light of what has been identified as mass me­dia logic, which has helped spread the media's powerful discourse outside its institutional boundaries. Theorizing social media logic, we identify four grounding principles—programmabil­ity, popularity, connectivity, and datafication—and argue that these principles become increas­ingly entangled with mass media logic. The logic of social media, rooted in these grounding principles and strategies, is gradually invading all areas of public life. Besides print news and broadcasting, it also affects law and order, social activism, politics, and so forth. Therefore, its sustaining logic and widespread dissemination deserve to be scrutinized in detail in order to better understand its impact in various domains. Concentrating on the tactics and strategies at work in social media logic, we reassess the constellation of power relationships in which social practices unfold, raising questions such as: How does social media logic modify or enhance ex­isting mass media logic? And how is this new media logic exported beyond the boundaries of (social or mass) media proper? The underlying principles, tactics, and strategies may be relat­ively simple to identify, but it is much harder to map the complex connections between plat­forms that distribute this logic: users that employ them, technologies that drive them, economic structures that scaffold them, and institutional bodies that incorporate them.

L. Zadeh

M. Crouch, Heather McKenzie

Christopher Potts

H. Nguyen, E. Walker

THE CONCEPT OF FUZZINESS Examples Mathematical modeling Some operations on fuzzy sets Fuzziness as uncertainty Exercises SOME ALGEBRA OF FUZZY SETS Boolean algebras and lattices Equivalence relations and partitions Composing mappings Isomorphisms and homomorphisms Alpha-cuts Images of alpha-level sets Exercises FUZZY QUANTITIES Fuzzy quantities Fuzzy numbers Fuzzy intervals Exercises LOGICAL ASPECTS OF FUZZY SETS Classical two-valued logic A three-valued logic Fuzzy logic Fuzzy and Lukasiewicz logics Interval-valued fuzzy logic Canonical forms Notes on probabilistic logic Exercises BASIC CONNECTIVES t-norms Generators of t-norms Isomorphisms of t-norms Negations Nilpotent t-norms and negations t-conorms DeMorgan systems Groups and t-norms Interval-valued fuzzy sets Type- fuzzy sets Exercises ADDITIONAL TOPICS ON CONNECTIVES Fuzzy implications Averaging operators Powers of t-norms Sensitivity of connectives Copulas and t-norms Exercises FUZZY RELATIONS Definitions and examples Binary fuzzy relations Operations on fuzzy relations Fuzzy partitions Fuzzy relations as Chu spaces Approximate reasoning Approximate reasoning in expert systems A simple form of generalized modus ponens The compositional rule of inference Exercises UNIVERSAL APPROXIMATION Fuzzy rule bases Design methodologies Some mathematical background Approximation capability Exercises POSSIBILITY THEORY Probability and uncertainty Random sets Possibility measures Exercises PARTIAL KNOWLEDGE Motivation Belief functions and incidence algebras Monotonicity Beliefs, densities, and allocations Belief functions on infinite sets Note on Mobius transforms of set-functions Reasoning with belief functions Decision making using belief functions Rough sets Conditional events Exercises FUZZY MEASURES Motivation and definitions Fuzzy measures and lower probabilities Fuzzy measures in other areas Conditional fuzzy measures Exercises THE CHOQUET INTEGRAL The Lebesgue integral The Sugeno integral The Choquet integral Exercises FUZZY MODELING AND CONTROL Motivation for fuzzy control The methodology of fuzzy control Optimal fuzzy control An analysis of fuzzy control techniques Exercises Bibliography Answers to Selected Exercises Index on>

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C. Hempel, P. Oppenheim

Premkishore Shivakumar, M. Kistler, S. Keckler et al.

N. Blaikie

H. Dishkant

M. Hellmann, Lotfi A. Zadeh

G. Deleuze, Constantin V. Boundas

B. Courcelle

H. Hansson, B. Jonsson

H. Reichenbach

H. Kamp, Uwe Reyle

M. Adler

O. Castillo, Leticia Amador-Angulo, J. R. Castro et al.

Shijiang Luo, Min Song, Xin Li et al.

Artem S. Yashin

The problem of deviant causal chains is a classic challenge in the philosophy of action. According to the causal theory of action (CTA), an event qualifies as an action if it is caused by the agent’s intention. In cases of deviant causal chains, this condition is met, but the agent loses control of the situation. To address this, theorists suggest that the intention must cause the action “in the right way”. However, defining what constitutes the “right way” is difficult, as the distinction between having and not having control can be subtle. In this paper, I demonstrate that brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) provide important insights into basic causal deviance. I examine how existing strategies might account for deviant causation in BCI use and highlight their challenges. I advocate for reliability strategies—approaches that focus on identifying which causal pathways reliably connect an agent’s intentions to their outcomes. Additionally, I compare two BCIs that differ in their sources of occasional malfunction. I argue that the presence of causal deviance in a given case depends on the boundaries of the system that enables action. Such boundary analysis is unnecessary for bodily movements; however, for basic actions performed through a machine, it becomes essential.