The thought of Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) in the history of political ideas is regarded as the beginning of modern political theory, which abandons the classical Socratic view of politics condensed in the virtue of citizens as the foundation of the polis (the state), as well as the medieval Christian worldview of Thomas Aquinas, where the state and politics are subordinated to religion and Christian morality. Politics becomes distinguished as public as opposed to private, and into political theory Machiavelli introduces the concepts of power, force, strength, and violence as legitimate political notions-a kind of Copernican turn away from the classical political theory of antiquity, where "trust in mute force, which the ancient Greeks considered a non-political instrument…" (Tadić, 1996: 56), now becomes axiomatic. In political reality, new rules apply-the virtuous citizen is replaced by homo politicus. Machiavelli, in the reality of politics, analyzes concrete political phenomena from the perspective of realism and the application of the empirical method. Among other things, Machiavelli says that "many have imagined republics and principalities that never actually existed" (Machiavelli, 2012: 65). Machiavelli's concept of the state and power is founded on the experience of the Florentine friar Savonarola and the famous dictum that unarmed prophets have failed: "It is necessary to know that there are two ways of fighting: by law and by force" (Machiavelli, 2012: 73). In The Prince, Machiavelli emphasizes that "there can be no good laws without a good army, and where there is a good army, there must be good laws" (Machiavelli, 2012: 53). In this paper we analyze the concept of a "good army" in Machiavelli as an unclear and disputable term. By applying methods of content and discourse analysis of Machiavelli's works, we will demonstrate his understanding of a good army within the framework of his theoretical innovation, his new method, through the research question of whether it means a well-armed army, a standing army of monarchical states (France, Spain), the adventurer companies, compagnie di ventura, hired by Italian city-states, or an army that, in the spirit of Augustine, wages war in good faith-or something else? Machiavelli criticizes mercenary warfare and introduces the notion of an armed people, a citizen militia, into his teaching. We will explain the concept of the armed people through his republicanism, his view of the people as the pillar of preserving the state, of the political community in freedom, and the category of friendship between ruler and people. In addition, the paper will address the reach of Machiavelli's idea of the "good army" in the political thought and practice of contemporary society, namely, how far his idea corresponds with the concept of total defense, which in various forms is practiced in a number of states around the world.
One of Spain’s best-known public historians is an academic outsider, María Elvira Roca Barea. This article contextualizes and briefly surveys her work, which defends empires in general and the Spanish Empire in particular. Rather than revisit the extensive historiographical debate, it focuses on the ‘public’ aspect of her public history. By examining her extensive digital media profile, it considers the ecology of the groups and media outlets that give her a platform, the social and political currents she endorses or which support her, and the social and political impact of her work. It finds that her imperial apologetics are selective, that Hispanophobia as embodied in the leyenda negra [Black Legend] is her real target, and that she offers a Spanish version of what William McNeill called ‘mythistory.’ It argues that while many of her values are right-wing populist, and while she positions herself as a centrist, she nevertheless appeals to some on the left by positioning Spain as an outsider in a world dominated by ‘Anglo-Saxon’ capitalism. Her call for greater unity within ‘Hispanidad’ [the Hispanic world] gestures towards a deeply contested but truly international public history in the service of geopolitical ends.
Aitana Vázquez‐Fernández, Francisco F. Caballero, Humberto Yévenes‐Briones
et al.
ABSTRACT Background Multimorbidity is the most common chronic condition experienced among older adults. It is unknown which amount and source of protein influences the development of frailty and mortality in patients with multimorbidity. We aimed to examine the association of plant and animal sources of protein intake with frailty and mortality among this type of patients. Methods This longitudinal study included 1868 participants aged ≥ 60 years from the Seniors‐ENRICA cohort in Spain with multimorbidity, defined as having 2 or more clinician‐diagnosed chronic diseases. Habitual diet was assessed at baseline (2008–2010) with a validated computerized diet history. Participants underwent repeated physical examinations (in 2013, 2015 and 2017) for assessment of frailty (≥ 3 criteria from the frailty phenotype: low physical activity, slow walking speed, muscle weakness, weight loss and exhaustion). All‐cause mortality was assessed up to January 2022. Analyses were conducted using Cox proportional hazard models and multistate models adjusted for sociodemographic, lifestyle and other dietary factors. Results Mean consumption of protein was 90.2 (standard deviation [SD]: 26.8) g/day, which represents 18.7% of the total energy intake and 1.23 (0.39) g per kg of body weight per day. Plant protein represented 6.16% of the energy intake, while animal protein represented 12.5%. During a median follow‐up of 12.9 (range: 11.7–13.9) years, we documented 196 incident cases of frailty and 490 deaths; of these mortality cases, 83 individuals died after a frailty diagnosis. Higher intake of total protein was associated with decreased risk of frailty (hazard ratio [HR] for tertile 3 vs. tertile 1: 0.66; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.45, 0.96; p trend: 0.03). In multistate models, higher fish protein intake decreased the risk in the progression from multimorbidity to frailty (HR per 1‐SD increment: 0.81 [95% CI: 0.68, 0.97]), and higher plant protein decreased the risk of progressing from multimorbidity to mortality (0.86 [0.75, 0.98]). In the progression from frailty to mortality, estimates for total, plant and animal protein showed increased risk (HR for 1 SD increment in total protein: 1.38 [1.05, 1.81]; HR for plant protein: 1.29 [1.01, 1.67]; HR for animal protein: 1.41 [1.04, 1.92]). No significant associations were found between meat protein and dairy protein in any transition. Conclusions In individuals with multimorbidity, higher protein intake, especially fish protein, was associated with lower risk of subsequent frailty, whereas plant protein intake was associated with lower risk of mortality. Higher total protein intake, however, might be detrimental in patients with multimorbidity and frailty. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02804672.
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system, Human anatomy
El presente artículo tiene el objetivo de proporcionar una primera aproximación al ascenso social, político y económico que experimentaron algunos sujetos mallorquines a través de su participación en la empresa napolitana de Alfonso el Magnánimo. Mediante el cotejo de documentación real – sobre todo, de registros fiscales y de correspondencia – se identifican algunos de los mallorquines que participaron en las campañas navales, sobre todo de los que lo hicieron mediante el aprovisionamiento de efectivos bélicos y, en especial, de galeras. Se analizan sus aportaciones, así como las compensaciones que recibieron por parte de la monarquía, y se dibuja, en conclusión, una vía de promoción social a través de la contribución en las empresas navales.
The events of 1848, which significantly affected the configuration of European society and politics, had their echo in Spain. The insurrections that occurred in various parts of the country had repercussions on its political evolution, as they led to the emergence of the different conceptions that the various liberal currents had of the Monarchy. From 1848, the discrepancies between a more conservative and immobile liberalism, represented by the Moderate party, and another with a more transformative sign, linked to the Progressive Party, from whose left the nucleus of the Democrats broke off, became more evident. Despite these differences, Spanish liberalism managed to forge a consensus around the defense of the Monarchy, which favored its survival until 1868, by adapting to an increasingly exclusive and authoritarian political context.
Las minas de Riotinto, una referencia de la minería metálica en el Estado español, sufrió desde la década de 1980 un proceso de cierre paulatino. En 1993 la multinacional estadounidense Freeport McMoran anunció el cierre definitivo de las minas para 1996. La respuesta sindical fue la defensa de una alternativa para el mantenimiento del empleo y la actividad minera, que desembocó en un acuerdo por el que los trabajadores se hacían cargo de la propiedad de las instalaciones y constituían Minas de Río Tinto Sociedad Anónima Laboral, convirtiéndose así en la mayor sociedad laboral a nivel estatal en su periodo de existencia (1995-2001).
History (General) and history of Europe, History of Spain
En este artículo se estudia una de las producciones dramáticas de Juan Pablo Forner, su única pieza larga completa que hemos conservado en la actualidad, La escuela de la amistad o El Filósofo enamorado, estrenada, ante el gran público, en Madrid, en el Teatro de la Cruz, el miércoles 28 de enero de 1795. Se investiga sobre la repercusión que tuvo la puesta en escena de este texto en los años posteriores a la muerte de Forner, hasta los finales del reinado de Fernando VII en España, según quedó reflejado en las publicaciones periódicas del momento, la aceptación que recibió por parte del público que acudió a los locales teatrales y por los críticos que se ocuparon de ella, las recaudaciones de taquilla que obtuvo en las sesiones, la estructura de la función dramática en la que fue incluida, las compañías teatrales que se encargaron de los montajes, las reposiciones de las que fue objeto. Todo ello va a demostrar que El Filósofo enamorado fue una comedia de éxito, demandada por los espectadores, que acudieron con regularidad a los espectáculos en los que, en los teatros del periodo, le fue reservada una importante y esencial participación.
El establecimiento del diario personal como género autobiográfico en el sistema literario posee diferentes periodizaciones de acuerdo al contexto: mientras que en el ámbito francés tiene lugar a finales del siglo xix y primera mitad del xx, en la península ibérica no se produce hasta las últimas décadas del siglo xx. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar el diario personal de tres autores, Rosa Chacel, Miguel Torga y Josep Pla, cada uno de los cuales pertenece a una tradición lingüística del contexto ibérico: la española, la portuguesa y la catalana, respectivamente. El estudio de estas tres obras desde una perspectiva conjunta –influida por los Estudios Ibéricos– permitirá entender el surgimiento de un nuevo género literario en estos ámbitos: el diario literario.
As virtual sites of public memorialization, historical biopics play an important part in shaping our view of the past. The genre employs a range of formal and narrative strategies in order to create persuasive narratives about historical characters and events. However, nation-specific socio-cultural and industrial conditions frequently determine whose lives are deserving of biographical treatment and how their stories are told. The following comparative analysis of two recent historical biopics, Clara Campoamor, The Forgotten Woman (Clara Campoamor, la mujer olvidada, Laura Mañá, 2011) and While at War (Mientras dure la guerra, Alejandro Amenábar, 2019), foregrounds some of these nation-specific circumstances in the Spanish context. It then proposes that these two works employ innovative strategies that signal possible new avenues for the historical biopic in Spain. In the case of Clara Campoamor, Mañá suggests alternative ways of representing historical female figures in the public arena, whilst in his film Amenábar mobilizes the conventions of the Hollywood biopic to aid transnational readability.
The paper analyzes a book written by Volodymyr Yarymovych, Oleksandr Bilyk, and Mykola Volynskyi, entitled Narys istorii ukrainskoi studentskoi hromady ta Ukrainskykh poselen v Espanii 1946–1996 (An Overview of the History of the Ukrainian Student Community and Ukrainian Settlements in Spain, 1946–1996), which tells about the Ukrainian students who arrived in Madrid in 1946 and formed part of the early Ukrainian Diaspora in Spain. The book proves to be an important source of information, previously unknown to scholars, which describes the dramatic and controversial process of constructing Ukrainian identity in the aftermath of World War II. The authors of the study consider the historical and cultural context of the Ukrainian emigration in the second half of the 20th century, its connection with Francoist ideology, and its integral role in the Spanish-Ukrainian cultural dialogue.
History of scholarship and learning. The humanities
Les deux navires de La Pérouse étaient peuplés de savants. À leurs yeux, la capacité et la dignité des détenteurs du pouvoir espagnol qui les ont reçus ne suffisent pas à compenser l’absurdité des lois qui régissent l’archipel : c’est un trésor en friche. Malgré l’efficacité du personnel de l’arsenal de Cavite, leur vision des Malais est plutôt négative.Au milieu du XIXe siècle, le marin écrivain Jurien de la Gravière a pu comparer l’exploitation sévère pratiquée par les Hollandais avec le laxisme des Espagnols qui laisse aux natifs une dose de bonheur de vivre. Il se demande quelle est la « bonne colonisation ». Ses descriptions sont précieuses et il note que la multiplication des métis va poser de sérieux problèmes au pouvoir espagnol.
History (General) and history of Europe, History of Spain
In the eighteenth century, the Embassy of Spain in Rome still continued to be of great importance given the multiplicity of interests that were at stake, but in this article I will confine myself to examining the figure of the ambassador and his ministerial function in the Roman Court, to then analyze some aspects of the embassy of Cardinal Troiano Acquaviva.
L’article retrace la figure du poète catalan Joan Maragall dans les cercles littéraires et culturels de l’exil en France, l’Angleterre et l’Amérique Latine après 1939 : le traitement reçu et sa fonction comme poète et personnage de référence de la culture catalane moderne. C’est aussi une analyse du processus de révision de son œuvre et de la controverse générée par certains secteurs de l’exil.
The torrid or tropical Zone limited by the two tropics of cancer and Capricorn was imagined by the greatest powers of the 18 century, Spain, France, and Great Britain as a meeting area of the otherness where the tropical discourses, ambivalent, appeared written either with dose of ferocity and infertility, or exoticism and abundance. Francisco Mourelle de la Rua was one of the most experienced sailors that plied the international waters during the last third of the eighteenth century, one of his trips included one of the «tropical» zones par excellence, the trip embarked from San Blas in Nayarit in Mexico and his return to Manila is the object of analysis of this study.<br>La zona tórrida o tropical limitada por los dos trópicos de capricornio y de cáncer fue imaginada por las mayores potencias del siglo XVIII, España, Francia e Inglaterra, como una zona de encuentro de la otredad donde los discursos tropicalistas, ambivalentes, aparecieron escritos con dosis o bien de ferocidad e infertilidad, o bien de exotismo y abundancia. Francisco Mourelle de la Rúa fue uno de los navegantes más experimentados que surcaron las aguas internacionales durante el último tercio del siglo XViii, uno de sus viajes comprendió una de las zonas «tropicales» por excelencia, el viaje emprendido desde San Blas de nayarit en México hasta Manila y su regreso es el objeto de análisis de este estudio.