Hasil untuk "Law of nations"

Ramon Ferrer-i-Cancho

Here we present a new class of optimality for coding systems. Members of that class are displaced linearly from optimal coding and thus exhibit Zipf's law, namely a power-law distribution of frequency ranks. Within that class, Zipf's law, the size-rank law and the size-probability law form a group-like structure. We identify human languages that are members of the class. All languages showing sufficient agreement with Zipf's law are potential members of the class. In contrast, there are communication systems in other species that cannot be members of that class for exhibiting an exponential distribution instead but dolphins and humpback whales might. We provide a new insight into plots of frequency versus rank in double logarithmic scale. For any system, a straight line in that scale indicates that the lengths of optimal codes under non-singular coding and under uniquely decodable encoding are displaced by a linear function whose slope is the exponent of Zipf's law. For systems under compression and constrained to be uniquely decodable, such a straight line may indicate that the system is coding close to optimality. We provide support for the hypothesis that Zipf's law originates from compression and define testable conditions for the emergence of Zipf's law in compressing systems.

Andrii Buzarov, Mykola Palinchak

The article addresses the pressing issue of compensating for the damage inflicted by Russian aggression against Ukraine, highlighting the complex intersection of international law, geopolitical realities, and economic recovery. The objective of the present study is twofold: firstly, to evaluate the efficacy and constraints of the prevailing compensation mechanisms; and secondly, to examine the role of the Euro-Atlantic community in the development of these processes. The research employs a mixed methodology, integrating content analysis, case study methods and a legal-analytical approach, drawing upon international legal documents, political decisions and empirical examples, including the Feniks Alliance. The findings indicate that, while substantial financial support has been mobilised by the Euro-Atlantic community, the utilisation of frozen Russian assets remains restricted and politically sensitive. The study identifies four potential scenarios for implementing compensation frameworks and highlights the emerging role of private initiatives as supplementary tools, complementing mechanisms instituted by international bodies such as the United Nations. Consequently, the paper concludes that a coordinated international effort, in conjunction with innovative legal and institutional instruments, is imperative to ensure fair and enforceable reparations for the victims of aggression, particularly within the Ukrainian business sector.

Xiaoping Li, Yu Ning, Yu Ning

This article explores the tension between the integrity of marine ecosystems and the fragmented administrative systems prevalent in unitary states. Drawing upon the theoretical frameworks of holistic governance, this study investigates the institutional innovations introduced by the MEPL 2023. It conducts a comparative analysis of institutional practices from the European Union’s Maritime Strategy Framework Directive, the Chesapeake Bay Watershed Agreement, and the Arctic MOSPA Agreement. The central focus of the analysis lies in the responsibilities of each department at the central level, the local primacy at the level and a three-tiered responsibility framework encompassing “local primary responsibility, cross-regional coordination, and cross-departmental coordination”, and its role in addressing the fragmentation in marine governance. MEPL 2023 has effectively transformed local governments from passive implementers into proactive collaborators. However, due to ambiguities in the delineation of vertical and horizontal responsibilities and the heterogeneous institutional structures at the local level, significant gaps persist in enforcement. To enhance intergovernmental cooperation, this study proposes targeted strategies from both legislative and enforcement perspectives: clarifying the specific responsibilities of administrative entities at all levels, establishing uniform enforcement standards, creating regional marine management committees, codifying coordinative mechanisms within the draft Ecological Environment Code, and developing a digital platform to support joint monitoring, emergency response, and cross-jurisdictional enforcement. This research provides a replicable and scalable governance model for unitary states within the context of comparative environmental law, aimed at achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14.

S. Dzhenzher, V. Sakbaev

We consider random operators $Ω\to \mathcal{L}(\ell_p, \ell_p)$ for some $1 \leqslant p < \infty$. The law of large numbers is known in the case $p=2$ in the form of usual law of large numbers. Instead of sum of i.i.d. variables there may be considered the composition of random semigroups $e^{A_i t/n}$. We obtain the law of large numbers for the case $p \leqslant 2$.

Frederik Zuiderveen Borgesius, Nina Baranowska, Philipp Hacker et al.

This brief paper provides an introduction to non-discrimination law in Europe. It answers the questions: What are the key characteristics of non-discrimination law in Europe, and how do the different statutes relate to one another? Our main target group is computer scientists and users of artificial intelligence (AI) interested in an introduction to non-discrimination law in Europe. Notably, non-discrimination law in Europe differs significantly from non-discrimination law in other countries, such as the US. We aim to describe the law in such a way that non-lawyers and non-European lawyers can easily grasp its contents and challenges. The paper shows that the human right to non-discrimination, to some extent, protects individuals against private actors, such as companies. We introduce the EU-wide non-discrimination rules which are included in a number of EU directives, and also explain the difference between direct and indirect discrimination. Significantly, an organization can be fined for indirect discrimination even if the company, or its AI system, discriminated by accident. The last section broadens the horizon to include bias-relevant law and cases from the GDPR, the EU AI Act, and related statutes. Finally, we give reading tips for those inclined to learn more about non-discrimination law in Europe.

Reshma Anna-Thomas, Sarah Burke-Spolaor, Casey J. Law et al.

We report on the detection of radio bursts from the Galactic bulge using the real-time transient detection and localization system, realfast. The pulses were detected commensally on the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array during a survey of unidentified Fermi $γ$-ray sources. The bursts were localized to subarcsecond precision using realfast fast-sampled imaging. Follow-up observations with the Green Bank Telescope detected additional bursts from the same source. The bursts do not exhibit periodicity in a search up to periods of 480 s, assuming a duty cycle of < 20%. The pulses are nearly 100% linearly polarized, showing circular polarization up to 12%, and exhibit variable scattering on timescales of months. The arcsecond-level realfast localization links the source confidently with the Fermi $γ$-ray source and places it nearby (though not coincident with) an XMM-Newton X-ray source. Based on the source's overall properties, we discuss various options for the nature of this object and propose that it could be a young pulsar, a magnetar, or a binary pulsar system.

Yongming Chen, Miner Chen, Ye Zhu et al.

Judicial efficiency is critical to social stability. However, in many countries worldwide, grassroots courts face substantial case backlogs, and judicial decisions remain heavily dependent on judges' cognitive efforts, with insufficient intelligent tools to enhance efficiency. To address this issue, we propose a highly efficient law article recommendation approach combining a Knowledge Graph (KG) and a Large Language Model (LLM). First, we construct a Case-Enhanced Law Article Knowledge Graph (CLAKG) to store current law articles, historical case information, and their interconnections, alongside an LLM-based automated construction method. Building on this, we propose a closed-loop law article recommendation framework integrating graph embedding-based retrieval and KG-grounded LLM reasoning. Experiments on judgment documents from China Judgments Online demonstrate that our method boosts law article recommendation accuracy from 0.549 to 0.694, outperforming strong baselines significantly. To support reproducibility and future research, all source code and processed datasets are publicly available on GitHub (see Data Availability Statement).

Yulia Rimapradesi, Taqiyya Rohadatul Aisyi, Ananda Khaerunnisa

The United Nations (UN) was formed to maintain world peace and security. The UN gives a mandate to its main body, called the Security Council (SC), to maintain peace and security stability, take necessary actions, and act as a mediator in all issues and conflicts that occur based on the provisions written in the UN Charter. As a member of the UN Security Council, Indonesia is fully committed to maintaining world peace regarding the UN mission. In carrying out its role, Indonesia refers to the free and active foreign policy, the 1945 Constitution, and the UN Charter. This research used qualitative methods to analyze the dynamics of Indonesia's membership in the Security Council in dealing with global issues. The results proved that Indonesia’s policies have tried to fight terrorism crimes through the UN Security Council membership. The mechanisms for conflict resolution put forward an approach to law enforcement, prevention, and the formation of UN Security Council resolutions related to terrorism crimes.

Maxwell Cobar, Carlos Montalvo

This paper details the implementation of a two stage underactuated control law for a CubeSat to reduce all angular rates to zero. This CubeSat has a diagonal inertia matrix where the principal axes of inertia are not equal. This is needed for momentum transfer between axes as shown by previous work in this area. The momentum transfer will provide control to the uncontrolled axis to reduce all angular rates of a CubeSat to zero. The underactuated control utilizes actuators on only two axes but still reduces all three angular rates to zero. The first stage utilizes one axis to control the uncontrolled axis to zero and then the second stage reduces the other two axes to zero. This control law is similar to other piece wise control laws but the difference lies in only using one axis to control the third axis. The control mechanism is an integrated two axis propulsion system. The control law is derived to show its viability and a fully non-linear six degree of freedom simulation tool is utilized to verify the derivation. The simulation tool is developed by the Facility of Aerospace Systems and Technology. Simulation results are shown for a 1U, 2U, and 6U CubeSat with three and two axis control. The two stage underactuated control law is compared to a proportional controller as well as a feedback linearization control law for comparison.

Jo Van Brusselen, Mathias Cramm, Yitagesu Tekle Tegegne

Major wood-importing markets, such as the European Union, the United States of America, and China, have set regulations in place requiring operators to only sell wood-based goods that are sourced and processed in accordance with local laws. Customs, CITES or other official trade documentation require to accurately state the geographic origin, tree species, and in some cases, age of a wood-based product. However, it frequently happens that these are consciously or unknowingly misreported. Various wood identification technologies can be used to verify trade declarations by assessing the anatomical, genetic, and the chemical properties of wood. Through literature review and an online global expert survey, we analysed the market potential for wood identification technologies. Our study finds a substantial but largely unexplored market. Key issues that need to be addressed are a lack of awareness, limited accessibility and availability of the technologies, and limitations in applicability caused by the lack of reference samples and data. The technologies are applied more by law enforcement than by traders in context of due diligence. Wood identification has less uptake in nations scoring lower on governance indexes. Potential private and public sector users should also be better informed about the capabilities and limitations of these technologies. Our findings are of particular interest to competent authorities and business developers in wood identification and/or chain of custody certification.

Zhi Wu Jiang, Hang Ding, Er Qiang Li

In 1687, Sir Issac Newton published The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in which the law of universal gravitation was derived. It is the first inverse-square law discovered in nature, combined with Coulomb's law in 1785, the two famous inverse-square laws become part of the foundation of physics. Why does nature prefer inverse-square laws over the laws of other forms? The question is still arousing broad discussion, and it is an important topic in physics. So far, the origin of inverse-square law is still under exploration although from the point of reductionism, the law of universal gravitation can be treated as the approximation of Einstein's general relativity under weak gravitation, and Coulomb's law could be derived from quantum electrodynamics. Here we discover a new inverse-square law between evaporating droplets deposited on a high energy solid substrate. For binary droplets, we show that the evaporation from a source droplet will create a surface tension gradient in the precursor film of a target droplet, resulting in a long-range inverse-square law force acting on the target droplet, and that the inverse proportion decay of the source vapor concentration in the space essentially contributes to the inverse-square form of the force. Furthermore, the inverse-square law force here is shown to hold for all experimental parameters tested, and other systems such as pure-liquid-droplet system and thermocapillary system, and it satisfies the superposition principle, not only suggesting exciting directions for future droplet research and applications, but also benefiting understanding of nature's predilection for inverse-square law.

Bo Lin, Bissan Ghaddar, Ada Hurst

Women, visible minorities, and other socially disadvantaged groups continue to be underrepresented in STEM education. Understanding students' motivations for pursuing a STEM major, and the roles gender, nationality, parental education attainment, and socio-economic background play in shaping students' motivations can support the design of more effective recruitment efforts towards these groups. In this paper, we propose and develop a novel text mining approach incorporating the Latent Dirichlet Allocation and word embeddings to analyze applicants' motivational factors for choosing an engineering program. We apply the proposed method to a dataset of 43,645 applications to the engineering school of a large Canadian university. We then investigate the relationship between applicants' gender, nationality, and family income and educational attainment, and their stated motivations for applying to their engineering program of choice. We find that interest in technology and the desire to make social impact are the two most powerful motivators for applicants. Additionally, while we find significant motivational differences related to applicants' nationality and family socio-economic status, gender has the strongest and the most robust impact on students' motivations for studying engineering.

Surya Kant Sahu, Abhinav Java, Arshad Shaikh et al.

Benford's Law (BL) or the Significant Digit Law defines the probability distribution of the first digit of numerical values in a data sample. This Law is observed in many naturally occurring datasets. It can be seen as a measure of naturalness of a given distribution and finds its application in areas like anomaly and fraud detection. In this work, we address the following question: Is the distribution of the Neural Network parameters related to the network's generalization capability? To that end, we first define a metric, MLH (Model Enthalpy), that measures the closeness of a set of numbers to Benford's Law and we show empirically that it is a strong predictor of Validation Accuracy. Second, we use MLH as an alternative to Validation Accuracy for Early Stopping, removing the need for a Validation set. We provide experimental evidence that even if the optimal size of the validation set is known before-hand, the peak test accuracy attained is lower than not using a validation set at all. Finally, we investigate the connection of BL to Free Energy Principle and First Law of Thermodynamics, showing that MLH is a component of the internal energy of the learning system and optimization as an analogy to minimizing the total energy to attain equilibrium.

Shayane do Socorro de Almeida da Paixão, Sandoval Alves da Silva, Rosalina Moitta Pinto da Costa

Objetiva-se discutir neste trabalho a eficácia vinculante gradual dos precedentes judiciais na perspectiva da teoria dos diálogos institucionais, tomando-se como ponto de partida a análise das principais teorias que estruturam a vinculação das decisões do Supremo Tribunal Federal a partir do Código de Processo Civil de 2015. Para tanto, mostra-se como essas teorias propõem a reestruturação do Poder Judiciário com a fixação de uma Corte Suprema capaz de proferir decisões responsáveis por garantir toda a unidade do direito e a uniformidade do ordenamento jurídico e as dificuldades de superação desses precedentes. A teoria dos diálogos é exposta como um caminho intermediário e razoável para questionar a ideia de uma unidade do direito que decorre exclusivamente das decisões do Supremo Tribunal Federal, demonstrando a importância de uma construção dialogada das decisões, assim como a possibilidade de superação dos precedentes judiciais pelo Poder Legislativo, como ocorreu no caso da Vaquejada. A interação dos poderes Legislativo e Judiciário é cada vez mais necessária em um cenário de questões sociais complexas, o que concretiza a ideia de um diálogo institucional.

Muhammad Saidun Anwar, Choirudin Choirudin, Mispani Mispani et al.

The study aims to contextualize the content of the inscription of DalungBojong of East Lampung in the modern era with Fazlur Rohman’s hermeneutical approach. The data were taken from interviews with the main witness, Haji Hasanuddin (Pangiran Betaro Rajo III) as the author and the writer of the inscription DalungBojong and Mr. Hasan al-Basri (Pangiran Sebuwaias the traditional leader of Bojong Village). Dalung Bojong inscription is an archaeological evidence of the strong influence of Banten over Lampung as its territory. The relationship patterns depicted in the inscription are: First, the pattern of political relations in determining all decisions is based on the Sultan's decree. Second, the pattern of economic relations. Banten as a commercial center between nations has an interest in Lampung as an area that produces a lot of agricultural products to meet the needs of trading commodities. Third, the patterns of religious and cultural relations, the patterns of political and economic relations that are formed, and the socio-cultural contacts also occured. The Sultanate of Banten in Islamizing the Pugung people gave birth to many socio-political and cultural dynamics. Queen Pugung, who has principles, never gave up before the war. However, Queen Pugung realized that it was impossible to do war against his daughter-in-law. Finally, Queen Pugung made a circle rule. Those who do not follow the KeratuanPugung rules and choose to convert to Islam must leave the circle (the Pugung area) to the nearby areas of Pugung which became the forerunners of the Sekampung Limo Migo community.

Tatsuru Kobayashi, Kumiko Tanaka-Ishii

Taylor's law describes the fluctuation characteristics underlying a system in which the variance of an event within a time span grows by a power law with respect to the mean. Although Taylor's law has been applied in many natural and social systems, its application for language has been scarce. This article describes a new quantification of Taylor's law in natural language and reports an analysis of over 1100 texts across 14 languages. The Taylor exponents of written natural language texts were found to exhibit almost the same value. The exponent was also compared for other language-related data, such as the child-directed speech, music, and programming language code. The results show how the Taylor exponent serves to quantify the fundamental structural complexity underlying linguistic time series. The article also shows the applicability of these findings in evaluating language models.

Nadezda V. Bryanic

The research literature on the Philosophy of Law revived in Russia at the turn of XX–XXI centuries (as well as a century earlier) is aimed at the understanding of radical changes in legal sphere and overcoming crisis of perception of justice. The article substantiates the thesis that in critical moments both in area of jurisprudence and legal practice domestic and foreign researchers assert that it is necessary to appeal to Roman Law as the pick point of the Ancient legal understanding, which is regarded as the basis for legal development in modern Russia. The research papers of E. Anners, J.-P. Vernan, G.V.F. Hegel, I.A. Pokrovsky, O. Shpengler, and G. Shershenevich serves as empirical material for philosophical interpretation of Ancient Law. The author's standpoint is to justify the fact that antiquity (sequentially, from Greek to Roman period) has created all possible forms of Philosophy of Law with its varieties that arose either from philosophy or from jurisprudence. The article argues that the recognition of natural-legal orientation is general vector of Philosophy of Law in Greek period. Philosophical context of Greek understanding of law is determined by cosmic law/nomos, which is associated with the moral-ethical characteristic – justice – when all citizens are perceived as “equal” (isoi) ones. Clear division between supporters of Philosophy of Positive Law and Philosophy of Natural Law did not take place in Greek period of Antiquity. The article analyzes distinctive features of Roman jurisprudence, which include technologicalness, applied character, and specification. The distinctive features of Roman jurisprudence are summarized by such notion as positivity of law. The causes and consequences of transformation of national civil law (jus civile) in the epoch of Empire into the right of nations (jus gentium) are revealed. Complementing the national civil law with the right of nations, Roman jurisprudence creates a particular form of Philosophy of Law – the philosophy of positive law, which arises not from philosophy, but from law.

Joel Isaak, Antonela Rivero

El Derecho Administrativo es una de las ramas jurídicas más influenciada por los avatares de la irrefrenable evolución social, en virtud del rol protagónico de la Administración Pública en la determinación de políticas públicas, inmiscuyéndose en la sociedad y repercutiendo directamente en la calidad de vida de los ciudadanos, como asimismo el grado de democracia de que dicha sociedad goza. Consecuentemente, en sus manos se encuentra el deber de hallar el equilibrio justo entre las prerrogativas del Estado y las garantías individuales y colectivas. Vemos la transformación del Derecho Administrativo al ritmo de las necesidades que dicta la realidad social, aquella que reclama más y mejor control de la gestión pública y participación en la toma de decisiones que involucren al interés general. Son las normas y las sentencias las que facilitan el camino a una democracia participativa. Podemos divisar un importante progreso cualitativo en el ensanchamiento de las vías de participación ciudadana a través de los avances que la jurisprudencia ha traído al poner en tela de juicio el desempeño discrecional de la Administración, el control de los fines que se propone y los medios que utiliza, y al incorporar a una multiplicidad de sujetos en sentencias que velan por una correcta aplicación de políticas públicas. Son ejemplos los mencionados casos “Mendoza”, “Halabi” y “Verbitsky”, entre otros que analizaremos en el presente comunicado, donde la legitimación amplia de sujetos interesados juega un papel trascendental. En la esfera administrativa, los estudios sobre el alcance de la legitimación tuvieron su origen respecto del proceso contencioso administrativo y han de proyectarse sobre el trámite o procedimiento administrativo previo. Señalaremos cómo el ámbito judicial es un espacio propicio y proclive al desarrollo de las tendencias que luego han de repercutir en la reforma de procedimientos previos para evitar mayor litigiosidad. Analizaremos las nuevas relaciones que se establecen entre los estrados judiciales y la actividad administrativa, nuevos ámbitos de convergencia, cuyo sustento se encuentra en los derechos de incidencia colectiva, receptados en el art. 43 de la CN. Nos aproximaremos a la reforma de nuestra Constitución Argentina, que en 1994 incorporó estos nuevos derechos de incidencia colectiva que perfilaron un mecanismo de participación ciudadana, a nuestro modo de ver, tan extraordinario como imprevisto, haciendo factible que amplios sectores de la sociedad puedan tomar parte en la vida pública de forma concreta, ensanchando así la democracia. Finalmente, hallamos necesaria la ponderación del protagonismo de los jueces, particularmente dentro del fuero contencioso administrativo, en su rol respecto de las políticas públicas, entendidas éstas como un modelo de acción estatal frente a determinadas contingencias o problemas sociales, reflejando el rigor axiológico del Estado, como aquellos valores más significativos para una sociedad, en circunstancias y épocas determinadas.

Alex Ely Kossovsky

Benford's Law predicts that the first significant digit on the leftmost side of numbers in real-life data is proportioned between all possible 1 to 9 digits approximately as in LOG(1 + 1/digit), so that low digits occur much more frequently than high digits in the first place. The two essential prerequisites for data configuration with regards to compliance with Benford's Law are high order of magnitude and positive skewness with a tail falling to the right of the histogram, so that quantitative configuration is such that the small is numerous and the big is rare. In this article various quantitative partition models are examined in terms of the quantitative and digital behavior of the resultant set of parts. The universal feature found across all partition models is having many small parts but only very few big parts, while Benford's Law is valid only in some particular partition cases and under certain constraints. Hence another suggested vista of Benford's Law is viewing it as a particular subset of the broader positive skewness phenomenon in quantitative partitioning. Significantly, such a vista is true in all other causes and explanations of Benford's Law where the small consistently outnumbers the big also in partial structures of the model or well before full convergence to Benford is achieved - endowing the principle universality in a sense. In conclusion, either the active act of partitioning or the passive consideration of a large quantity as the composition of smaller parts can be considered as another independent explanation for the widespread empirical observation of Benford's Law in the physical sciences.