Tasavvur-tasdik ayrımı, Fârâbî ile birlikte İslâm düşünce geleneğinde gerek mantık gerekse bilgi teorisi bağlamında önemli bir yer edinmiştir. Bu çerçevede, hem tasavvurların hem de tasdiklerin kazanımlı (mükteseb) ve kazanıma dayanmayan (gayr-i mükteseb) şeklinde tasnif edildiği görülmektedir. Ancak Fahreddin er-Râzî, başta el-Muḥaṣṣal olmak üzere el-Erbaʿîn, el-Âyâtü’l-beyyinât ve el-Meʿâlim gibi eserlerinde bu genel kabulden ayrılarak, tüm tasavvurların kazanıma dayanmaksızın, zorunlu biçimde meydana geldiğini savunmuştur. Râzî bu görüşünü iki temel argüman üzerinden temellendirmektedir: Bunlardan ilki, Menon paradoksunun yeniden formüle edilmesi; ikincisi ise tam tanımın gerek teorik gerekse pratik düzeyde imkânsızlığına dair ileri sürdüğü iddialardır. Menon paradoksu, bilgi edinme sürecinin imkânını sorgulayan bir epistemolojik açmaz ortaya koyar. Bu bağlamda, ya bilenin bilgiye hâlihazırda sahip olduğu ya da bilinmek istenen şeye dair hiçbir veriye sahip olmadığı varsayımı kabul edilmelidir. Her iki durumda da bilgi kazanma süreci anlamını yitirmektedir. Râzî’ye göre, elde edilmek istenen bir tasavvur ya önceden bilinmekte ya da hiçbir surette bilinmemektedir. İlk durumda, bilinen bir şeyin tekrar elde edilmesi anlamsız olduğundan; ikinci durumda ise, talep edilen şeye dair mutlak bir bilinemezlik söz konusu olduğundan tasavvurun kazanımı imkânsızdır. Diğer taraftan, tanımın imkânını sorgulayan ikinci delilde Râzî, tanımlanmak istenen şeyin mahiyetine ulaşmak için onun zâtî bileşenlerine dair bilgi sahibi olmanın çeşitli felsefi ve mantıksal sorunlara yol açtığını ileri sürer. Bu iki temel argüman üzerinden Râzî, bilgi sürecinin ilk aşamasını oluşturan tasavvurların kazanıma dayalı olmadığını ortaya koyar. Buna bağlı olarak, tasavvurlara dayanan tasdiklerin ve tasdiklere bağlı iradî fiillerin de özünde kazanımlı olamayacağı sonucuna ulaşır. Başka bir ifadeyle, et-Tefsîr’de dile getirdiği “İnsan, irade hürriyetine sahipmiş gibi görünse de aslında zorunludur” görüşünün arka planında, tasavvurların zorunlu meydana gelişi yönündeki bu temel varsayım yer alır. Bunu destekler nitelikte Râzî, argümanı el-Meṭâlib’in dokuzuncu bölümünde yer alan “İman ve küfrün kulların kalbinde meydana gelmesinin ancak Allah’ın yaratmasıyla mümkün olduğunu gösteren deliller” başlığı altında ve el-Erbaʿīn’de “Kulların fiillerinin yaratılmış olup olmadığı”na ilişkin başlık altında yeniden sunar. Ne var ki, özellikle irade hürriyetini epistemolojik zeminde reddetmesi nedeniyle, bu yaklaşım, Mu‘tezilî düşüncenin temel ilkeleriyle bağdaşmamaktadır. Bu yüzden, İbn Ebî’l-Hadîd, et-Taʿlîḳ ʿale’l-Muḥaṣṣal, Şerḥu’l-Âyâti’l-beyyinât ve Ziyâdâtü’n-Naḳżeyn gibi eserlerinde Râzî’nin bu görüşünü eleştirel bir bakışla ele almıştır. İbn Ebî’l-Hadîd’in eleştirileri, öncelikle tasavvurların kazanımlı olmadığının ne anlama geldiğini sorgulamakla başlar. Ona göre, genel olarak bilinen (eş-şuʿūr fî’l-cümle) şeylerin tanım aracılığıyla tam olarak bilinmesi (eş-şuʿūr et-tāmm) mümkündür. İkinci olarak, Râzî’nin gündeme taşıdığı Menon paradoksunu aşmak adına, bilen öznenin bilgiye ‘talep olmaksızın’ ulaşabilmesini mümkün kılan alternatif bir kazanım modeli önermektedir. Buna ek olarak, İbn Ebî’l-Hadîd, başta İbn Sînâ olmak üzere birçok İslâm düşünürünün benimsediği yönler (cihetler) anlayışını Râzî’nin görüşlerine karşı bir alternatif olarak sunar. Bu teoriye göre, özne, bilinen yönlerinden hareketle onun mahiyetine ulaşabilir. Râzî’nin ikinci delili olan tam tanımın imkânsızlığına yönelik eleştirisinde ise İbn Ebî’l-Hadîd, mahiyetin zâtî unsurları ile mahiyetin kendisi arasındaki farkı vurgular. Mahiyete dair bilginin ya faal aklın feyziyle ya da zâtî unsurlarından birinin bilinmesiyle mümkün olabileceğini savunur.
This article deals with the profound shifts that are taking place in light of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, in which
humanity’s future is highly topical. The article engages Thomas Merton’s re-evaluation of Anselm’s Cur Homo Deo with Harari’s book Homo Deus (2015) and argues that, while we must take Harari’s views seriously, thefuture evolution of humanity is not the human godsuggested by Harari, but that suggested by Merton, who argues that the incarnation shows God’s love for creation; shows Christ as the pattern of what it means to live a holy life, and, ultimately, shows the future of both the cosmos and humanity, where all is taken into the very heart of God. Harari views the future as the creation of a benevolent human god; Merton views the future as a place where all of creation is divinised.
Christianity, Practical religion. The Christian life
Φανερόω as a word denoting the second coming in the New Testament. The purpose of this article is to exegetically determine the meaning and use of φανερόω as a word, denoting the second coming, according to the revelation-historical tradition. A definition of the meaning of φανερόω is formulated following a word study that has been done in a diachronic and synchronic way. Furthermore, translation possibilities for φανερόω in Afrikaans are suggested. In this article, it is also cursorily established what the telos of the revelation of the second coming is where the word φανερόω is used in the New Testament. The findings of the research are: A definition of the meaning of φανερόω as a word for the second coming: It is the deliberate, visible self-revelation of Jesus Christ in public with his second coming, so that God, his Name and his works can be fully known, fulfilled and realised. Two translation possibilities in Afrikaans are proposed. When using a phrase, the following translation possibility is offered: ‘Die openbaring van Jesus Christus met sy wederkoms’ [The revelation of Jesus Christ at his second coming]. If the chosen translation method allows only one word, then ‘wederkomsopenbaring’ [revelation at the second coming] is suggested as a translation possibility. The telos of the revelation of the second coming by means of φανερόω is determined as: To convey knowledge about the second coming; as encouragement to be focused on heavenly things; as encouragement to serve faithfully; as encouragement that service will be rewarded with glory; as an encouragement to persevere in Christ so that believers may have boldness (the right of access) at the second coming; as encouragement to repentance; [kerugma], which leads to the certainty of faith, joy and the strengthening of faith; and so that believers will live holy.
Contribution: By means of exegesis in the revelation-historical tradition an original, theological definition of the meaning of φανερόω is provided and the telos of the revelation of the second coming, by means of φανερόω, is determined. Suggestions of how to translate φανερόω in the context of the second coming in Afrikaans, is also provided.
Practical Theology, Practical religion. The Christian life
In the Face of the Pandemic: Environmental Imbalances as an Ethical Reaction to Human Action
La Pandemia de Covid-19 visibilizó la vulnerabilidad de los sistemas de salud públicos sometidos al mercado libre. Pero la crisis sanitaria es apenas una muestra de la crisis civilizatoria a la que nos ha encaminado la visión colonial-moderna-capitalista. La respuesta no es una simple vuelta a la página para superar la modernidad. Dada la magnitud de la crisis es necesario hacer un planteamiento crítico para ir más allá que la modernidad. Por ello es importante escuchar a las diferentes tradiciones civilizatorias que fueron encubiertas por la modernidad. Este es el caso de la Ética indígena, la cual desde la tradición de los pueblos originarios del sur de México ofrecen una visión integral de la Ecología, expresada en su forma de vida en comunidad. El diálogo entre tradiciones civilizatorias podría ofrecer pistas para un diálogo intercultural crítico y simétrico, como medio para salir de esta crisis sistémica reflejada en la Pandemia actual.
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the vulnerability of public health systems that are ruled by the free market. However, the public health crisis is merely an expression of a civilizational crisis due to a capitalist-modern-colonial vision. The answer is not simply turning the page to overcome modernity. Given the magnitude of the crisis, a critical approach is needed to go deeper than modernity. This is the reason why it is important to listen to the different civilizational traditions that were covered up or dismissed by modernity. This is the case of Indigenous ethics, such as the tradition of the original peoples of Southern Mexico that offers a comprehensive vision of Ecology, expressed in their way of life in community. The dialogue between civilizational traditions offers resources for a critical and symmetrical intercultural dialogue, as a way out from this systemic crisis that the current pandemic manifests.
Syncretism has remained a persistent issue among the Igbo-speaking Christians of Nigeria. This is observed in the double allegiance of faith among many of them who, interestingly, are devotees of both Christian and African traditional beliefs/systems. Besides the belief in ritualistic charms, many Igbo/Igbo-speaking Christians consult diviners for various reasons, including security and prosperity, causes of illness and death, ways of preserving life, as well as to discern the mind of God about one’s future and destiny. Moreover, traditional oath-taking among other African traditional religious practices is common among many Igbo Christians. This article sets out to critically examine the factors that are responsible for the persistence of religious syncretism among the Igbo Christians. The study adopts a qualitative phenomenological research design and descriptive method for data analysis. Personal interviews and library resources constitute the primary and secondary sources of data, respectively. The findings reveal that lifethreatening factors such as illness, disease, insecurity, and fear are some of the principal causes of religious syncretism among the Igbo Christians.
Christianity, Practical religion. The Christian life
discussion. Everything in this volume is clear and concise, including the introductory and concluding essays. There is a mention (p. 11) of a methodological debt to approaches associated with Keith Ward but K€arkk€ainen has an altogether more practical aim. The ten chapters at the core of the book have standard theological headings, and, in addition to the four topics mentioned above, we find creation; human nature; the ‘Saviour’ figure; the Spirit (and spirits); the community; and eschatology (including life in the hereafter). Under each heading, K€arkk€ainen outlines Christian claims (as far as possible in their plurality) and then, in turn, the ‘parallel’ claims of the other faiths. Sharply focused discussions are often followed by a further reflection – for example, ‘Common Scripture readings as a form of interfaith theologizing’ (p. 55); ‘Religion, God(s) and violence’ (p. 78); and ‘Christian guidelines for the discernment of the Spirit(s) among religions’ (p. 184) – which may be exactly what readers with a practical interest in interfaith activity and debate are looking for. Some teachers and students are familiar with comparative religion/comparative theology methodologies for the study of, say, historic Judaism and early Christianity (needed for an understanding of the theology of St Paul) or across the Abrahamic faiths (to make sense of Muslim critiques of Judaism and Christianity). Others may be interested in convergences between Christian and oriental world views and spiritualities. The advantage of K€arkk€ainen’s book, described as a primer (p. 10), is that it is a ‘one-stop shop’, covering both East and West. The disadvantage is a shortage of detail: in the 20-page chapter on eschatology, for example, there are just four pages on Jewish perspectives from across a colossal historical timeline; meanwhile, recognition of diverse understandings of issues within particular faiths is limited or patchy. K€arkk€ainen is a major authority in his field and the substance and assessments found in the book are well judged and amply referenced. His chapters offer good outlines and accessible material for people new to the field, along with bibliographic pointers for those who need to go further. Are the ‘truths’ of faith claims absolute or relative? And what are the foundations for ‘certainty’? These are hard but inevitable questions, and the book ends with some Wittgensteinian reflections.
Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758) In Effect Lived Two Lives: One As The Pastor Of Churches In New England, Teaching His People The Faith And Including In That The Ethical Side Or Outworking Of The Faith, The Other As A Theorist Of God’s Relation To His Universe. These Two Roles Need To Be Borne In Mind In What Follows. The First Is Closely Connected With Doctrinal And Practical Themes Of The Christian Faith, The Second With The Meaning And Truth Of Ethical Matters At Their Most Fundamental Level. To Have A Rounded View Of Edwards’s Ethics, We Need Both. KEYWORDS: Jonathan Edwards, Ethics, True Religion, Doctrine And Life, John Locke, Religious Affections, Nature Of True Virtue, Charity And Its Fruits
In the article is considered the ideas of ukrainian philosophy of soviet period V. Antonenko, and so the influence of the ideology of that time on the formation of the scientific worldview of the scientist is analyzed. Theoretical reconstruction of V. Antonenko's views on socialist humanism is carried out, principles of which he shows as the highest form of humanism, contrasting the anti-humanist essence of Christian preaching "love of neighbor" and depicts socialist reality as a practical embodiment of true humanistic ideas. Analyzed of views V. Antonenko on art the socialistic realism, which is presented as the highest stage in the development of progressive world art. The scientist traces the origin of art, explains how it was brought to life, what contribution religion has made to its best achievements. V. Antonenko explores the anti-religious and anti-church orientation of the works of many representatives of fine arts. He is analyzing the views of idealist aesthetics and theologians on art. V. Antonenko thoroughly researches the stages of development of humanism, traces its social and cultural movement, which arose in the XIV century. in Italy; studies the humanistic ideas of the leading figures of the Renaissance, who found their further development in the works of the ideological predecessors of the French Revolution of the XVIII century; explores the humanistic ideas of the utopian socialists of the nineteenth century; studies the period of development of Ukrainian and Russian art in the period of radical destruction of old traditions and the influence of religious ideology on their formation; considers a whole galaxy of outstanding artists of the second half of the nineteenth century, who glorified culture and began to speak a new about art as a higher product of human genius, about the principles of realism in art. V. Antonenko's research on the relationship between art and other forms of social consciousness, which are related to the problems of forming norms and principles of communist morality, is analyzed.
In the study of any historical period, chronology of events plays a great role. The Chronicle of Eusebius of Caesarea is very important for the study of the history of the Ancient World. The work of Eusebius represents the first work in the Greco-Roman written tradition, summarizing the data of ancient chronography, and combining them with the data of the eastern, especially biblical, chronography. The Chronicle is divided into two parts, the first of which gives a brief survey of the history of a number of ancient peoples and the lists of kings with an indication of the duration of their reign, and the second part presents synchronous tables of the main events from the birth of the biblical patriarch Abraham until the twentieth year of the reign of Emperor Constantine. The original version of the work was not preserved, and two versions of it survived to our time. The first is a translation into Latin made by Jerome the Blessed at the end of the 4th century, and the second is a translation into Old Armenian made in the 6th century. In this paper, the author proposes his translation of the part of the Jerome’s version of the Chronicle, which contains information on events of Biblical history from the birth of Abraham to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews. The translation is made by: Eusebius Werke Bd.7. Tl. 1. Die Chronik des Hieronymus: Hieronymi Chronicon / Hrsgb. von R. Helm. Leipzig, 1913.
In his political and economic writings George Berkeley presented a concept of ‘true patriotism’. The concept was not based on political views, economic interests, social status, cultural ties or on any commitment to a particular Christian denomination. ‘A true patriotism’ was not created in opposition to the ‘alien’ nor did it aim at its destruction. ‘A true patriotism’ was of a universal character, it applied to the Irish, English or Scots alike. In fact, it applied to any people that accepted the Christian religion and its moral principles. Berkeley perceived a nation as an entity, not as various groups or classes competing with each other for power or wealth. ‘A true patriotism’ was a gift from God and it was also practical in the sense that it sought a safe and prosperous life for the largest possible number of people. Berkeley’s concept of ‘a true patriotism’ should be considered in a wider context, and as one of the battlegrounds between Berkeley and freethinkers. Berkeley provided an alternative, even if somewhat utopian, concept of patriotism and the Irish nation compared to the concept that eventually prevailed and that far too often degenerated into xenophobia, being one of the main causes of bloody conflicts, including conflicts in Ireland.
Martin Luther and prayer. For decades, not many theologians published on the theme of prayer. The philosophical critique on religion is one reason. A sensible thing to do in times of uncertainty and disorientation is to fall back on the advice of theologians of name who guided the church in the past. Martin Luther is one such theologian. He was a theologian of prayer. Prayer was a pivotal element in his understanding of spirituality. It was also a constitutive factor for his theology. In Luther, we find a respected and reliable teacher on Christian prayer. Luther himself prayed often in the privacy of his home and in public spaces. His life is an example of a praying Christian. He left behind many sermons and publications on prayer. The research on Luther’s theology of prayer is vast. Unfortunately, we have no publications on Luther and prayer in Afrikaans. This is hopefully the first of many to come. The article concentrates on Luther’s practical advice regarding prayer to congregants who joined the Reformation. The advice could also be useful to the South African community that is becoming more and more secularised. In the second part of the article, his theology of prayer is discussed and his Rogationtide sermons are emphasised. His introductions and theology on, especially, John 16 receive attention. Thirdly, as an example of his expositions on prayer, we look at the second petition of the Lord’s Prayer. The relationship between the kingdom and the church is explained.
ABSTRACT Against most expectations religion has not vanished from Western culture. If anything, it exercises a greater fascination than ever before. Broadly, we might think of ourselves as occupying a new, ‘postsecular’ space between a renewed visibility of religion in public life, and a corresponding acknowledgement of the importance of religious values and actors; and persistent and widespread disillusion and scepticism towards religion, and objections to religion as a source of legitimate public discourse. In a world that is more sensitive than ever to religious belief and practice, yet often struggles to accommodate it into secular discourse, how do religious institutions justify their position in a contested and volatile public square? This article argues that the contemporary postsecular context requires a recovery of the ancient practices of Christian apologetics as a form of public, theological witness to the practical value of faith, articulated in both deed and word.
In the Christian religious tradition, theological virtues of faith, hope and love have a central role. Along with the cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance they present the whole of the good human life. While cardinal virtues can be cultivated by human will, faith, hope and love are given by God and therefore open ‘natural’ human life on Earth toward transcendent spiritual realities. Human beings as bio-psycho-social and spiritual beings incorporate theological virtues in all the activities of their life. In sport, faith, hope and love have an important, though often neglected, role. On a practical level faith can be recognized in any relation between athlete and coach. To trust one’s coach, without any guarantee that the outcome of prescribed workouts will lead to the desired results, needs strong faith, trust and confidence. Moreover, faith is the virtue that makes sport so attractive also for spectators even to the point of being a ‘secular’ religion for the masses. Hope is the virtue of ‘not yet’ or of something ‘being on its way’. For most athletes, daily workouts are not a goal, but just the means to that end. Any reason for doing sports needs a hope behind it in order to move or will oneself to action. Along with hope, understood as a golden mean, we find despair on the one hand and ‘false hope’ on the other. Both are corruptions of hope seen daily in the world of sport. To manage hope in sport practices correctly offers a path to success in sport at all levels. Love is at the apex of the theological virtues. There are many formulations of love both in ancient Greek and Roman times: eros, agape, caritas, amor. Each has its special characteristic meaning also in sport. In sport we can see laughter and tears because any love is connected with highest human joy and deepest depression. Yet, in summation, it is argued that love in sport must be understood as the binding force and source of cooperation and fulfilled life for any athlete qua human being.