he success of the construction sector in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Socialist Republic of Croatia had a significant impact on the growth and development of other economic activities. In the period from 1964 to 1965, this sector faced numerous challenges, such as unfavourable relations with investors, a lack of long-term investment policy plans, frequent changes in the scope and structure of projects, and a lack of project continuity and necessary production materials. There was also a disconnect between the producers and the investors in the design of building projects, which reduced the opportunities to apply more modern techniques and technologies. Therefore, the costs of implementing project activities increased considerably. The construction sector in the Socialist Republic of Croatia in the period from 1964 to 1965 was characterised by a relatively low level of development of both production capacities and employees, which had a predominantly negative effect on the distribution of labour.
Employing quantitative and interpretative-descriptive methods and drawing on unpublished archival material and the relevant historiographic literature, the author presents the general state and trends in the construction sector in the Socialist Republic of Croatia from 1964 to 1965. The article aims to answer the question of how the general conditions in this economic sector influenced its performance in the Karlovac district. In addition, based on statistical microeconomic indicators, it provides insight into the position of the construction sector in the Karlovac district in relation to the situation at the federal and republican levels. The relevance of the Karlovac district in this article is primarily reflected in the fact that, according to available archival material, fifty-one industrial enterprises operated in this area in the mid-1960s. The efficiency of their operations was largely determined by the positive developments in the construction sector. Regardless of all the problems that significantly affected the success of this economic sector in the Karlovac district, this area was, in terms of total income growth, one of the most successful in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The second part of the article provides a detailed analysis of three construction companies—Lika, Korana, and Novotehna—for which archival material was found, and whose work significantly influenced the success of the construction sector and the economy of Karlovac as a whole.
Kinship terminologies, which vary across cultures and languages, present challenges for lexicographers in creating bilingual dictionaries. Effective bilingual dictionaries must accurately and comprehensively reflect kinship terms and their equivalents. This study explores the lexicographic treatment of Xitsonga kinship terms in bilingual dictionaries, focusing on their definition, translation, and cross-referencing in English-Xitsonga contexts. It addresses the lexicographic challenges posed by kinship terms' cultural specificity and structural diversity across languages. Using a descriptive qualitative methodology, data were collected from the English-Tsonga/Tsonga-English Pocket Dictionary (2008) and the Pharos Bilingual Dictionary: English-Xitsonga/Xitsonga-English (2021). This study is guided by the user-driven approach to lexicography. The study has found that even though bilingual dictionaries offer some accurate equivalents, they often lack full definitions and overlook specific cultural nuances. Cultural differences between English and Xitsonga were identified as key factors limiting the inclusion of kinship equivalents. To improve the accuracy and cultural representation of kinship terms, this study recommends expanding definitions to cover a wider range of familial relationships and ensuring all relevant Xitsonga equivalents are included to reflect its cultural distinctions. These findings contribute to understanding the challenges and opportunities of presenting kinship terms and informing the improvement of bilingual lexicographic resources for Xitsonga.
IntroductionIn the 18th and 19th centuries AD, during the Timurid era in India, the subcontinent achieved a prominent position due to the presence of nobles and people of culture, relying on the history of its civilization, as well as a correct understanding of Iranian-Islamic civilization and studying a mixture of these two cultures. Studying and analyzing the works of literary elites of this period in various fields such as linguistics, literary criticism, lexicography, description of texts and Persian grammar confirms this claim. In these works, the element of nationality and supremacy of Iranian writers such as Hazin Lahiji was taken into consideration, while Indian writers stood up to defend their opinions and literary collections. One of the great writers who was able to play an influential role in the subcontinent along with great people like Siraj al-Din Ali Khan Arzu, Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami, and Munir Lahori is Imam Bakhsh Sahbai. He has created works in the field of text description, rhetoric, linguistics, and literary criticism, each of which include new insights, and offer new paths for further explorations. The works left by Sahbai show his knowledge and mastery in the conventional techniques of speech, research in Persian vocabulary and terms, text research, perfecting the art of riddles, and the description of Persian books and messages. Despite the considerable achievements of Sahbai, no comprehensive research has been done about his life, works, and thoughts. This article aims to take a small step in introducing him and his contributions. Literature ReviewSo far, three books have been written in Urdu and three articles have been written in Urdu, English, and Farsi, some of which are hasty transcriptions of the contents of those books. The books, which are among the first-hand sources, are Imam Bakhsh Sahbai by Khawaja Muhammad Hamed, Sahbai: A Brief Introduction by Muhammad Ansarullah, and Imam Bakhsh Sahbai Ki Adabi Khadamat by Muhammad Zakir Hussain. In these three works, useful information can be obtained about Sahbai’s life, the circumstances of his martyrdom, and his students; Nevertheless, due to their rarity and being in Urdu, it is difficult for researchers to use them. although the authors of these works provide useful insights about Sahbai, they do not analyze his linguistic and literary views in the text and merely state the subject of the works.The scholarly article “'Bringing Spring to Sahbai's Rose-Garden': Persian Printing in North India after 1857” written by Zahra Shah and published in the book The Global Histories of Books: Methods and Practices deals with the life and works of Imam Bakhsh Sahbai, as well as the significant contributions of his students, especially Monshi-e-Din Dayal and Dehram Narin, and the services of these two loyal students in collecting and lithographic printing of the works of their master. Additionally, the author reveals the personal goals and ambitions of people like Nawab Sayyid Muḥammad Ṣiddīq Ḥasan Khān al-Qannawjī and the East Indian conspiracies in preventing the publication and promotion of literary works, especially those of Sahbai, in Persian.In 2018, Mehdi Rahimpour published an article titled “Sahbai” in the fifth volume of the Encyclopedia of Persian Language and Literature in the Indian Subcontinent. This article briefly discusses Sahbai's life and works, highlighting his literary and linguistic characteristics; however, the life events, the circumstances and reasons of Sahbai's martyrdom, his students and their influence in the subcontinent are not addressed. Another article written in Farsi is “Imam Bakhsh Sahbai: The First Persian Teacher of Delhi College” by Seyyedah Balqis Fatemeh Hosseini and published in the book Delhi in the Mirror of Persian Literature under the supervision of Rehana Khatun. Additionally, Pakistani writer Rukhsana Saba authored an article titled “Imam Bakhsh Sahbai: His Life, Works, and Death” published in the Urdu Development Association magazine, volume 95, number 1. Written in Urdu, this article is a summary of the three previously mentioned books and its important feature is the description of some events of the 1857 Delhi revolution and how Sahbai was martyred by the British. MethodologyIn writing this article and describing the events of Imam Bakhsh Sahbai's period, in addition to referring to the few sources written in Persian, we have cited various others in Urdu and English. We have tried to describe Sahbai's life, circumstances, and thought by referring to the available sources and criticizing and analyzing them to determine his scientific, linguistic, and literary position in the subcontinent. In parallel with the discussion of Sahbai's feelings and emotions, passions and desires, needs and wishes, we also examine his knowledge and scientific, cultural, and social relations. This article examines Sahbai's life and works focusing on several components: 1- The impact of genetic and other influential factors such as intelligence, talent, heredity; 2- The effect of education on the flourishing of Sahbai's talent; 3- The influence of the era and the living environment of Sahbai; 4- Experiences and mental abilities, knowledge, power of perception and thinking; 5- The role of Sahbai’s students in promoting the Persian language in the subcontinent; 6- Sahbai's works. DiscussionThe characteristics of the literary figures of the subcontinent in the 18th century, shaped by the rich culture ruling the area, include sobriety, contentment, appreciation, and etiquette. In addition to these characteristics, seclusion, unity of thought, and relentless work ethic which Iqbal Lahori describes as “blood of liver” are the notable behavioral and scientific attributes of this group, including Sahbai. In his treatise Mathmar, Khan Arzu examines different dialects, then investigates the works and status of Persian poets and raises the question “Are the works of Persian writers of India considered documented?”. On page 34 of his treatise, Arzu asserts that only those who have worked hard to become among the people of language and are “able to speak” are reliable. In fact, Sahbai was one of those eloquent speakers who spent his life until his martyrdom on the path of learning and writing numerous works in various fields such as text description, grammar, discursive trial and debate, and also in order to train scholarly students, each of whom was unique in his time. After Khan Arzu, literary criticism and linguistics reached new heights with Sahbai.ConclusionAs a result of his genius, research on Persian and Arabic texts and a remarkable memory, Sahbai is considered an opinionated and precise thinker, as well as an innovative critic.Sahbai's writings about Tarshizi's works such as Sharh-i Se Nathr-i-Zuhuri and Sharh-i Minabazar alongside his critical treatises like Nata’ij-i-Afkar, I‘la’-al-Haq, and Qol Faisal are of great importance among his prose works.
This study aimed to investigate and propose a pragmatic approach in the adaptation of English terminologies for scientific purposes into Northern Sotho. This is necessary because of the lack of terminologies to describe and define scientific phenomena in the language. Languages are constantly evolving, and speakers drive their evolution. The study aimed to overcome the scientific terminology development challenge for Northern Sotho by analysing existing data and using corpus linguistics as a method. The Multilingual Natural Science and Technology Dictionary Grade 4–6 (2013) was used to provide illustrative examples and clarify linguistic complexities in scientific terminology. The study revealed the complexity of the linguistic adaptation of Northern Sotho and the challenges and pitfalls linked to the integration of borrowed English terminology into academic discourse, encompassing apprehensions concerning accuracy, clarity and cultural appropriateness. Furthermore, the findings indicated that the puristic term adaptation approach tends to be perplexing.
Contribution: This study contributes to the intellectualisation and revitalisation of Northern Sotho by enhancing the language and equipping its speakers to engage more efficiently in scientific contexts, illuminating intricacies and potential misrepresentations inherent in the process of adaptation. Moreover, the research underscored the significance of employing adaptation strategies that are suitable for the Northern Sotho context and are consistent with linguistic patterns and semantics.
This article considers the destructive changes in speech action, which are diagnosed by a comparative analysis of associative fields over time, and addresses two central problems: refinement of the long-standing concept of “speech action” and optimization of the established procedure for analyzing numerous and diverse associative data. The dynamics of the ways of predicating speech actions based on the material of associative fields was investigated. The principles of interpreting the cue, the target combination as a speech action, were further elaborated. The analysis relies on the results of free associative experiments and speech action modeling. The findings reveal a drastic change in the universal process of speech production over the past 27–30 years, with a significant decrease in the number of speech actions within the full syntactic cycle and a growing use of topic–comment structures and syntactic primitives as the types of speech action. The study is of great importance for psycholinguistics and associative lexicography, as it introduces a method for analyzing the associates indicative of the dynamics of language ability. In addition, the theoretical problem of classification of thematic or agrammatic responses as speech actions with a skipped operation of surface syntaxing was solved.
History of scholarship and learning. The humanities
According to Štampar’s definition, health is an ideal to strive for, from a global to an individual level. The author, who worked as a rural field physician, discusses how he became aware of the limitations of his work and the importance of the involvement of other individuals and the community, in line with Štampar’s principles. In the real world, Štampar’s ideal is unattainable without cooperation between the individual and the community. An individual can work on their physical health (living and eating healthily, exercising, resting) within a genetically defined range (reaction norm), while the quality of the environment (air, water, climatic conditions, noise, light pollution) depends on broader community intervention. Therefore, in 1978, the Declaration of Alma-Ata was adopted at the International Conference on Primary Health Care. Its introduction highlights Štampar’s definition of health and affirms that health, as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, is a fundamental human right. It also asserts that achieving the highest possible level of health is the most important global social goal, the realisation of which requires action not only from the healthcare sector but also from many other social and economic sectors. In September 2012, the European Office of the World Health Organization adopted a new strategy called ‘Health 2020: A European Policy Framework and Strategy for the 21st Century,’ aimed at improving health for all and reducing health inequalities through better leadership and governance. This Declaration and strategy made the goal concrete, down-to-earth, and achievable. Accordingly, based on a case study, the presentation demonstrates how the concept of health in Štampar’s sense can be achieved on a personal level, portraying an individual who, by practicing the ideas of health and hygiene in the spirit of Andrija Štampar, lived to be 106 years old.
The paper analyses the conceptual mechanisms underlying the development of
secondary emotional meanings of “non-emotional” verbs (in relation to their
primary meaning). Being abstract, psychological entities, emotions are
formalised and expressed by linguistic means using emotional lexis.
Emotional verbs represent a type of this lexis: they denote emotions,
emotional relationships and processes, emotional expression and an emotional
situation as a whole. The research material consists of 92 verbs which are
classified according to two criteria: a. the semantic role of the
experiencer, i.e. whether the verbs denote experiencing or provoking an
emotion (emotionally-active and emotionally-passive verbs) and b. the
criterion of the primary emotion, i.e. whether the verbs belong to the
emotional domain of joy, sorrow, fear or anger. The analysis showed that
emotions are conceptualised by specific emotional metaphors, based on the
pleasure: discomfort distinction. The primary metaphor MAN IS THE CONTAINER
FOR EMOTIONS and the general metonymic rule PHYSIOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF
EMOTIONS ARE THE EMOTION ITSELF, represent general mechanisms for the
conceptualisation of secondary emotional meanings of verbs. It has also been
shown that a certain type of a verb’s primary meaning potentially develops a
certain secondary emotional meaning; in other words, each primary emotion
has an intrinsic source domain which concretises its abstract meanings.
This paper examines the lexical repertoires in Spanish and
Portuguese that are included in two conversation manuals: O espanhol tal qual
se fala. Novissima guía de conversação com a pronúncia figura, work elaborated for
the Portuguese who want to learn Spanish; and the Manual de la conversación
y del estilo epistolar, for the acquisition of Portuguese by Spaniards. The
vocabularies inserted in both works are thematically grouped: they constitute
nomenclatures, repertoires that are very common within the tradition of
teaching and learning foreign languages. In addition, these vocabularies are
complemented with a column dedicated to the pronunciation of the target
language, in a similar way to other contemporaneous texts. Therefore, the
analysed works are not original, but they are a good sample of the materials
used throughout the history of foreign language teaching.
It is common knowledge that specialised languages use some aspects of “languages” to express the communicative objectives of specialised communities. Compiling and analysing specialised corpora is one way of identifying recurrent features that tend to shed light on these special uses. As a result, it is possible to draw a list of the linguistic characteristics specific to a given specialised language, such as the use of a special lexicon or special lexico-grammatical features. Some of these features are so specific compared to other varieties of languages, whether specialised or not, that they will naturally be identified as typical of, say, legal English, economic English and so on. Therefore, lexis – and, to some extent, grammar – appears to be distinct from one specialised language to another, or from non-specialised languages to specialised languages, which would tend to show that specialised lexicons, together with some grammatical features, are a defining feature of specialised languages. Yet, as we will show, much of legal lexis is shared by other types of language, in particular everyday, non-specialised language, which implies that legal lexis is necessarily polysemous. Therefore the question is: how legal/specialised is legal lexis? Or, put differently: what makes legal lexis legal? Can legal lexis be considered as a characteristic of legal language? This article will first focus on some of the borrowings that characterise legal lexis in English and then look at some of the interpretation difficulties posed by a number of lexical units that do not stand out as being “legal” but yet consistently appear in legal messages and feature, for some of them, in legal dictionaries.
This paper presents the results of a survey on dictionary use in Europe, the largest survey of dictionary use to date with nearly 10,000 participants in nearly thirty countries. The paper focuses on the comparison of the results of the Slovenian participants with the results of the participants from other European countries. The comparisons are made both with the European averages, and with the results from individual countries, in order to determine in which aspects Slovenian participants share similarities with other dictionary users (and non-users) around Europe, and in which aspects they differ. The findings show that in many ways the Slovenian users are similar to their European counterparts, with some noticeable exceptions, including (much) stronger preference for digital dictionaries over print ones, above-average reliance on other people when dictionary does not contain the relevant information, and the largest difference between the price of a dictionary and the amount willing to spend on it.
The paper addresses the problem of linguocultural description of urban toponymy in different types of dictionaries, by proposing a new conceptual framework that accounts for their functional specificity. The author’s broad experience in lexicography suggests that in a dictionary of official urban toponymy representing a complex linguistic and cultural structure of the urban space requires each article to include not only cultural and historical commentary but also a special zone dedicated to unofficial (nominative and derivative) variants of the name which exist in colloquial speech and youth slang. It should also provide extensive source material on how these toponyms are used in everyday speech. On the other hand, in a dictionary of regional slang, the subcultural component of informal place names and the logic behind the slang nomination can receive a more comprehensive interpretation against the official toponymicon, as it may help to identify the specific nature of motivations in regionalisms or their compliance with the all-Russian fund of toponymic naming patterns. The informal urbanonyms used nation-wide, with an indication of their regional variations, can be included in generalpurpose slang dictionaries — a particular example of such dictionary entry is provided. Using these lexicographic strategies would allow compilers of different types of dictionaries to build a complex description of the stylistic and historical layers of the urban toponymicon, its regional and all-Russian components, as well as to give a full picture of the urban toponymic space as a multidimensional though unified cultural text.
The present article investigates several elements of the microstructural level of Swahili bilingual dictionaries. The main emphasis is on the grammatical information, its content and presentation in the various dictionaries chosen for analysis. The other components of a dictionary entry analysed include the headword, its citation form, and additionally the pronunciation, usage labels and etymological information not found in every dictionary. We investigate the many ways in which information can be presented to the user, influencing the user-friendliness of a given dictionary.
Ethnology. Social and cultural anthropology, Philology. Linguistics
Shallow syntactic annotation in the corpus of Wrocław University of Technology
In this paper we present shallow syntactic annotation of The Wrocław University of Technology Corpus. We discuss some theoretical and practical considerations related to shallow parsing of Polish, then we present our annotation guidelines. The proposed annotation scheme includes chunking – four chunk types are defined with reference to the notion of accommodation and syntactic connotation, as well as annotation of four inter-chunk predicate-argument relations. Until now almost 18k chunk and 4k relation instances have been annotated. We believe that both the corpus and the annotation guideliness will prove their applicability in construction of automatic shallow parsers.
Computational linguistics. Natural language processing, Semantics
This article presents a panoramic and critical overview of isiXhosa lexicography and its impact on the intellectualisation of this indigenous South African language. The history of isiXhosa lexicography dates back more than two centuries. However, there still exists a need for dictionaries that serve the language-speaking community as practical tools for addressing diverse communication and learning-oriented needs in the current language policy dispensation. The IsiXhosa National Lexicography Unit (XNLU) is currently working on dictionary projects that attempt to address this situation while at the same time not losing sight of the mandate that the Pan South African National Language Board (PanSALB) placed on all the National Lexicography Units (NLUs). For this to happen, the article argues that the NLU needs to put lexicographic practice into its historical perspective, i.e. conceiving dictionary projects in the light of existing dictionaries and lexicographic traditions in the language. Over and above that, there is a need to take into account the recent developments in lexicographic research, adopt co-operative lexicographic practice and develop a dictionary culture among the isiXhosa-speaking community.