Ezieddin Elmahjub, Junaid Qadir, Abdullah Mushtaq
et al.
As millions of Muslims turn to LLMs like GPT, Claude, and DeepSeek for religious guidance, a critical question arises: Can these AI systems reliably reason about Islamic law? We introduce IslamicLegalBench, the first benchmark evaluating LLMs across seven schools of Islamic jurisprudence, with 718 instances covering 13 tasks of varying complexity. Evaluation of nine state-of-the-art models reveals major limitations: the best model achieves only 68% correctness with 21% hallucination, while several models fall below 35% correctness and exceed 55% hallucination. Few-shot prompting provides minimal gains, improving only 2 of 9 models by >1%. Moderate-complexity tasks requiring exact knowledge show the highest errors, whereas high-complexity tasks display apparent competence through semantic reasoning. False premise detection indicates risky sycophancy, with 6 of 9 models accepting misleading assumptions at rates above 40%. These results highlight that prompt-based methods cannot compensate for missing foundational knowledge. IslamicLegalBench offers the first systematic framework to evaluate Islamic legal reasoning in AI, revealing critical gaps in tools increasingly relied on for spiritual guidance.
Unlike other military technologies driven by national security needs and developed with federal funding, AI is predominantly funded and advanced by commercial industry for civilian applications. However, there is a lack of understanding of the reasons commercial AI firms decide to work with the DoD or choose to abstain from the defence market. This thesis argues that the contract law and procurement framework are among the most significant obstacles. This research indicates that the commercial AI industry actually views the DoD as an attractive customer. However, this attraction is despite the obstacles presented by traditional contract law and procurement practices used to solicit and award contracts. Drawing on social exchange theory, this thesis introduces a theoretical framework, optimal buyer theory, to understand the factors that influence a commercial decision to engage with the DoD. Interviews from a sample of the participants explain why the AI industry holds such perceptions, opinions, and preferences about contracts generally and the DoD, specifically, in its role as a customer. This thesis concludes that commercial AI firms are attracted to contracts that are consistent with their business and technology considerations. Additionally, it develops best practices for leveraging existing contract law, primarily other transaction authority, to align contracting practices with commercial preferences and the machine learning development and deployment lifecycle.
Abstract In the era of “AI plus healthcare”, personal health data has shifted from static records into dynamic and time-sequential data flow covering a full lifecycle. While it has become an important element of production in healthcare industry, it also faces new risks and challenges and the current legal framework of personal health data protection in China cannot satisfactorily address these challenges. The ambiguous rules on personal health data ownership and the ineffective individual empowerment model of data governance fail to respond to the dual needs for protection of personal health data and extraction of data value. In view of diversified and sometimes conflicting values and interests embodied in personal health data, it is therefore recommended that the agile governance model, characterized by dynamic adaptability and multistakeholders collaboration, be adopted. The bundle of rights over data should be allocated among data subjects, data processors and the government; a differentiated consent mechanism based on risk classification should be constructed; the principle of purpose limitation and minimum necessary should be reinterpreted in an expansive and generalized manner within the limits of reasonable expectation and risk control; and, anonymization measures and tort liability rules should be improved by clarifying obligations of stakeholders and balancing their rights and responsibilities. Through dynamic risk control by collaboration of multiple stakeholders, the agile governance model can reach the balance between sufficient protection and rational utilization of personal health data in data processing.
Political institutions and public administration - Asia (Asian studies only), Economic growth, development, planning
Maiko Kamata, Catherine Pereira‐Kotze, Marko Kerac
et al.
ABSTRACT The International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes (‘the Code’) was established to protect babies and young children from inappropriate marketing of formula milk, bottles and teats and avoid undue commercial influence on caregiver infant feeding practices, including undermining breastfeeding and safe and appropriate formula feeding. UK law encompasses some but not all of the Code. To address persisting concerns about the marketing of infant formula (IF) and follow‐on formula (FoF), we assessed labelling compliance in the UK against relevant provisions in the Code, UK law and Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC) Guidance Notes which interpret UK law. Data were collected during July and August 2022 by taking pictures of labels from company websites, in shops and online. We developed three labelling checklists to systematically assess compliance and to compare compliance scores between the regulatory frameworks, formula types and brands. We assessed 57 labels (n = 32 IF and n = 25 FoF) and found low overall compliance: 50% complied with UK law, 32% with Guidance Notes and 40% with the Code. None of the labels complied with provisions prohibiting idealising text and photographs, nutrition and health claims (where relevant) and cross‐promotion between formula types. In conclusion, UK IF and FoF labels violate many of the provisions of all three regulatory frameworks. This is evidence of inappropriate marketing. The UK law should be better enforced and strengthened in line with the Code to protect breastfeeding, support safer, appropriate formula feeding and lessen commercial influence on infant feeding practices.
Tüketici kavramı her geçen gün daha fazla önem kazanmakta, buna paralel olarak da tüketici hukukundaki düzenlemeler yeniden kaleme alınmaya ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Gerek mülga 4077 sayılı Kanun'da gerekse 6502 sayılı Tüketicinin Korunması Hakkında Kanun'da yapılan her değişiklikte tüketicinin tanımı değişmiş, kavramın kapsamı her defasında daha da genişlemiştir. Kanunkoyucu en kapsamlı haliyle tüketiciyi ticari veya mesleki olmayan bir amaçla hareket eden kişi olarak tanımlamıştır. Tüketici kavramını belirlerken amaç kriterinden hareket etmiştir. Bu bağlamda, ticari veya mesleki amaçla hareket eden kişilere ticari veya meslekî amaç olmaksızın mal veya hizmet sunan kişiler kanunkoyucunun esas aldığı amacı taşımaktadır.
While large language models (LLMs) have showcased impressive capabilities, they struggle with addressing legal queries due to the intricate complexities and specialized expertise required in the legal field. In this paper, we introduce InternLM-Law, a specialized LLM tailored for addressing diverse legal queries related to Chinese laws, spanning from responding to standard legal questions (e.g., legal exercises in textbooks) to analyzing complex real-world legal situations. We meticulously construct a dataset in the Chinese legal domain, encompassing over 1 million queries, and implement a data filtering and processing pipeline to ensure its diversity and quality. Our training approach involves a novel two-stage process: initially fine-tuning LLMs on both legal-specific and general-purpose content to equip the models with broad knowledge, followed by exclusive fine-tuning on high-quality legal data to enhance structured output generation. InternLM-Law achieves the highest average performance on LawBench, outperforming state-of-the-art models, including GPT-4, on 13 out of 20 subtasks. We make InternLM-Law and our dataset publicly available to facilitate future research in applying LLMs within the legal domain.
Jnaneshwar Baslingker, Riddhipratim Basu, Sudeshna Bhattacharjee
et al.
It is well-known that the largest eigenvalue of an $n\times n$ GUE matrix and the length of a longest increasing subsequence in a uniform random permutation of length $n$, both converge weakly to the GUE Tracy-Widom distribution as $n\to \infty$. We consider the sequences of the largest eigenvalues of the $n\times n$ principal minor of an infinite GUE matrix, and the the lengths of longest increasing subsequences of a growing sequence of random permutations (which, by the RSK bijection corresponds to the top row of the Young diagrams growing according to the Plancherel growth process), and establish laws of fractional logarithms for these. That is, we show that, under a further scaling of $(\log n)^{2/3}$ and $(\log n)^{1/3}$, the $\limsup$ and $\liminf$ respectively of these scaled quantities converge almost surely to explicit non-zero and finite constants. Our results provide complete solutions to two questions raised by Kalai in 2013. We affirm a conjecture of Paquette and Zeitouni (Ann. Probab., 2017), and give a new proof of $\limsup$, due to Paquette and Zeitouni (Ann. Probab., 2017), who provided a partial solution in the case of GUE minor process.
The agency of the commercial distributor receives great attention at the international level, by regulating its terms, conditions, and procedures for obtaining, because it leads to advancing the production wheel, and thus the prosperity of industry and trade, and it is noted on the internal level that there is a shortcoming in regulation and legislation in the Kurdistan Region - Iraq, as the The Iraqi Commercial Agency Regulation law No. (51) of 2000 - enforceable in the Kurdistan Region - Iraq - did not indicate the agency of the commercial distributor, although the Iraqi Law in force No. (79) of 2017 referred to the agency of the distributor as a form of agencies and then it was defined in the Commercial Agency Regulation Law No. (1) of 2020, but it was not regulated independently, From a practical point of view, there must be legislative intervention to regulate it.
Introduction: Waqf is one of the Islamic social financial instruments, having the distinctive characteristic that waqf assets are donated voluntarily by the wakif and are permanently designated for social benefits. Waqf can be used for productive or commercial activities to generate profits by Sharia law. Cash waqf can play a role in supporting the overall development process, both in human resource development, as well as in economic and social development. This study tries to explore the role of cash waqf for microfinance which can subsequently help the people's economy.
Methods: The research method used in this research is quantitative research with bibliometric analysis. Data sources collected secondary data obtained from the Google Scholar database. Data were obtained using Publish or Perish (POP) software and analyzed using VOSviewer software.
Results: The results of this research show that, from data searches using the keywords "cash waqf", "microfinance" and "sharia microfinance" by limiting 500 papers in the 2010-2024 time period, the words "microfinance institutions" are the most frequent keywords, indicated by a darker color than other keywords.
Conclusion and suggestion: Based on the results and analysis, it can be concluded that, from year to year, research on the topic of cash waqf for microfinance is most often used. However, research on the topic of cash waqf for Sharia microfinance is still limited. Therefore, future research can be carried out regarding cash waqf for sharia microfinance. Cash waqf plays an important role in supporting the overall development process, both in human resource development, as well as in economic and social development. The potential of cash waqf can be used as a means of economic empowerment for lower-middle-class communities with the role played by microfinance institutions.
This comprehensive treatise is written for the special occasion of the author's 70th birthday. It presents his lifelong endeavors and reflections with original reasoning and re-interpretations of the most critical and misleading issues in thermodynamics; since now, we have the advantage to look at the historical developments more comprehensively and objectively than the pioneers. Starting from Carnot (grandfather of thermodynamics-to-be) to Kelvin and Clausius (fathers of thermodynamics), and other followers, the most relevant issues are critically examined and put in historical and contemporary perspective. From original reasoning of energy forcing and displacement to logical proofs of the fundamental laws, to ubiquity of thermal motion and heat, and indestructibility of entropy, including the new concept of "thermal roughness" and the inevitability of dissipative irreversibility, to "dissecting Carnot true reversible-equivalency" and critical concept of "Carnot-Clausius heat-work equivalency (CCHWE)" regarding the interchangeability of heat and work, and to demonstrating "no hope" for the "challengers" of the Second Law of thermodynamics, among others, are offered. It is hoped that the novel contributions presented will enhance comprehension and resolve some of the fundamental issues, as well as promote collaboration and future progress.
This paper is a technical overview of DeepMind and Google's recent work on reinforcement learning for controlling commercial cooling systems. Building on expertise that began with cooling Google's data centers more efficiently, we recently conducted live experiments on two real-world facilities in partnership with Trane Technologies, a building management system provider. These live experiments had a variety of challenges in areas such as evaluation, learning from offline data, and constraint satisfaction. Our paper describes these challenges in the hope that awareness of them will benefit future applied RL work. We also describe the way we adapted our RL system to deal with these challenges, resulting in energy savings of approximately 9% and 13% respectively at the two live experiment sites.
Maurizio Parton, Marco Angelone, Carlo Metta
et al.
This paper aims to investigate the possibility of using artificial intelligence (AI) to resolve the legal issues raised by the Covid-19 emergency about the fate of continuing execution contracts, or those with deferred or periodic execution, as well as, more generally, to deal with exceptional events and contingencies. We first study whether the Italian legal system allows for ''maintenance'' remedies to cope with contingencies and to avoid the termination of the contract, while ensuring effective protection of the interests of both parties. We then give a complete and technical description of an AI-based predictive framework, aimed at assisting both the Magistrate (in the course of litigation) and the parties themselves (in out-of-court proceedings) in the redetermination of the rent of commercial lease contracts. This framework, called A.I.A.Co. for Artificial Intelligence for contract law Against Covid-19, has been developed under the Italian grant ''Fondo Integrativo Speciale per la Ricerca''.
Modeling law search and retrieval as prediction problems has recently emerged as a predominant approach in law intelligence. Focusing on the law article retrieval task, we present a deep learning framework named LamBERTa, which is designed for civil-law codes, and specifically trained on the Italian civil code. To our knowledge, this is the first study proposing an advanced approach to law article prediction for the Italian legal system based on a BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) learning framework, which has recently attracted increased attention among deep learning approaches, showing outstanding effectiveness in several natural language processing and learning tasks. We define LamBERTa models by fine-tuning an Italian pre-trained BERT on the Italian civil code or its portions, for law article retrieval as a classification task. One key aspect of our LamBERTa framework is that we conceived it to address an extreme classification scenario, which is characterized by a high number of classes, the few-shot learning problem, and the lack of test query benchmarks for Italian legal prediction tasks. To solve such issues, we define different methods for the unsupervised labeling of the law articles, which can in principle be applied to any law article code system. We provide insights into the explainability and interpretability of our LamBERTa models, and we present an extensive experimental analysis over query sets of different type, for single-label as well as multi-label evaluation tasks. Empirical evidence has shown the effectiveness of LamBERTa, and also its superiority against widely used deep-learning text classifiers and a few-shot learner conceived for an attribute-aware prediction task.
Los acuerdos de concesión son figuras jurídicas utilizadas para acordar entre las partes (Estado y persona jurídica) el desarrollo de actividades propias del Estado. La ejecución de las actividades desarrolladas en torno al contrato tiene tratamientos contables y fiscales especiales. En lo concerniente a las NIIF Plenas, las entidades deben determinar el impuesto diferido, el cual surge de comparar las bases contables con las fiscales, estas últimas determinadas con base en las modificaciones incorporadas por la Ley 1819 de 2016, lo que lleva a que, desde cada óptica (contable y fiscal), se tengan distanciamientos sobre las bases de reconocimiento y medición cuando la retribución del acuerdo de concesión bajo NIIF es clasificada como activo financiero y, desde la óptica fiscal, como activo intangible.
We prove Price's law with an explicit leading order term for solutions $φ(t,x)$ of the scalar wave equation on a class of stationary asymptotically flat $(3+1)$-dimensional spacetimes including subextremal Kerr black holes. Our precise asymptotics in the full forward causal cone imply in particular that $φ(t,x)=c t^{-3}+\mathcal O(t^{-4+})$ for bounded $|x|$, where $c\in\mathbb C$ is an explicit constant. This decay also holds along the event horizon on Kerr spacetimes and thus renders a result by Luk-Sbierski on the linear scalar instability of the Cauchy horizon unconditional. We moreover prove inverse quadratic decay of the radiation field, with explicit leading order term. We establish analogous results for scattering by stationary potentials with inverse cubic spatial decay. On the Schwarzschild spacetime, we prove pointwise $t^{-2 l-3}$ decay for waves with angular frequency at least $l$, and $t^{-2 l-4}$ decay for waves which are in addition initially static. This definitively settles Price's law for linear scalar waves in full generality. The heart of the proof is the analysis of the resolvent at low energies. Rather than constructing its Schwartz kernel explicitly, we proceed more directly using the geometric microlocal approach to the limiting absorption principle pioneered by Melrose and recently extended to the zero energy limit by Vasy.
Artificial Intelligence represents many things: a new market to conquer or a quality label for tech companies, a threat for traditional industries, a menace for democracy, or a blessing for our busy everyday life. The press abounds in examples illustrating these aspects, but one should draw not hasty and premature conclusions. The first successes in AI have been a surprise for society at large-including researchers in the field. Today, after the initial stupefaction, we have examples of the system reactions: traditional companies are heavily investing in AI, social platforms are monitored during elections, data collection is more and more regulated, etc. The resilience of an organization (i.e. its capacity to resist to a shock) relies deeply on the perception of its environment. Future problems have to be anticipated, while unforeseen events occurring have to be quickly identified in order to be mitigated as fast as possible. The author states that this clear perception starts with a common definition of AI in terms of capacities and limits. AI practitioners should make notions and concepts accessible to the general public and the impacted fields (e.g. industries, law, education). It is a truism that only law experts would have the potential to estimate IA impacts on judicial system. However, questions remain on how to connect different kind of expertise and what is the appropriate level of detail required for the knowledge exchanges. And the same consideration is true for dissemination towards society. Ultimately, society will live with decisions made by the "experts". It sounds wise to involve society in the decision process rather than risking to pay consequences later. Therefore, society also needs the key concepts to understand AI impact on their life. This was the purpose of the trial of an IA that took place in October 2018 at the Court of Appeal of Paris: gathering experts from various fields to expose challenges in law and science towards a general public.
There seems to be a common pattern in the way Member States have addressed taxation of company reorganizations. After some uncertainty, operations affecting corporate and shareholding structures were considered as sources of taxable capital gains. As might have been expected, this hindered a more efficient capital allocation, leading to the enforcement of special laws granting limited and conditional exemption aiming to ease the transfer of undertakings, often with extra advantages than what would be necessary. A deeper rethinking
about the very nature of corporate finance transactions at a later stage defined the problem and brought an across-the-board enactment of general provisions for corporate restructuring, inspired by tax-neutrality: roll-over relief and tax deferral, further underpinned by Community law, have since become standards for addressing mergers, divisions, and, to some extent, transfer of assets and exchange of shares. It is arguable whether tax neutrality granted to reorganizations does represent a waiver to the realization principle, or whether instead it is a consistent development of the legal concept of taxable income.
In the former case there would be some grounds to challenge tax neutrality in company restructuring operations that lack commercial reasons through purposive construction or anti-abuse clauses or principles. In the latter, antiavoidance rules should be limited to thwart circumvention of the statutory scope and the spirit of tax law, irrespective of the business purposes of the transactions carried out.
Financial Information has an important role in economic growth and development of trade competition system. It is considered in different sciences such as economics, accounting and so on. Nevertheless , one of the important challenges in this regard is the recognition of financial Information, because by exploring this concept and its significance, the legislator can foresee civil and criminal arrangements for protecting this information. In relation to the meaning of this information, there are four possibilities. According to the first possibility, financial information is solely one of the instances of trade secret and is concerned with intellectual property law. According to the second possibility, financial information is the information in which any misuse leads to commercial and property loss. According to the third possibility, information that affects three constituent of expense, revenue and investor’s rights, is financial. According to the fourth possibility, information that has financial value is considered to be financial information. Among these possibilities, the fourth possibility is compatible with legal logic, because financial Information conforms with all of the criteria for being property.
El presente artículo hace un recorrido cronológico por medio de algunas de las fuentes del derecho romano que permiten establecer el origen, el contenido y el alcance del concepto de cumplimiento de las obligaciones (solutio) en Roma. Para ello, se procede a una reflexión acerca de los cambios que sufrió el término solutio entre los periodos arcaico y clásico del derecho romano, para luego centrarnos en el estudio exegético de algunas fuentes romanas que contienen referencias a solutio, solvere y satisfactio, a fin de establecer por esta vía el antecedente estructural de la actual noción de cumplimiento de las obligaciones.