Dans les sources polonaises médievales et en particulier dans le duché de Masovie (Mazowsze), constituant une principauté autonome jusqu’au début du XVIe siècle, on rencontre de temps en temps des mentions d’un personnage, appelé prawidlnik. Ce nom polonais dérive du mot prawo — droit, justice, et pourrait être traduit littéralement en français: „justicier”. Mais l’etymologie ne nous renseigne pas encore sur la nature et les fonctions du prawidlnik et cette question est devenue depuis longtemps litigieuse dans la littérature historico-juridique polonaise.
Le prawidlnik était certainement une personne associée aux fonctions relevant de la justice. On voyait en lui un fonctionnaire inférieur de la justice (espèce d’un huissier), on l’identifiait avec le vicesubcamerarius — subalterne du subcamerarius, celui-ci autrefois dignitaire de la cour ducale, qui devint ensuite un des hauts officiers de la noblesse terrienne dans les voïevodies. On attribuait d’autre part au prawidlnik des fonctions du conseil (ou bien du conseiller) français (Warner, Hörer, Ratgeber dans l’ancien droit germanique), qui devait guider la partie au procès dans une stricte observation des formes de la procédure. Enfin on avait émis une suggestion que le prawidlnik était une personne déléguée par le juge pour assister à la prestation du serment et pour accomplir certaines actions juridiques qu’il rélatait ensuite au juge. On n’était pas même d’accord quel terme latin employé par les chartes correspondait au terme polonais de prawidlnik.
Ces divergences des vues étaient dues au fait que l’on ne disposait jusqu’à présent que d’un nombre très restreint (1 - 8) des mentions de sources sur le prawidlnik, respectivement Sur son hononyme latin. Cependant des recherches systématiques nous ont permis de trouver des sources plus abondantes qui nous permettent de reconsidérer la question.
L’institution étudiée apparaît dans les sources a l’époque du démembrement politique de la Pologne, qui prit fin avec la restauration du Royaume Polonais en 1320 (exceptée la Masovie qui fut incorporée au Royaume seulement en 1529). Il nous parut donc utile de suivre les divisions territoriales, et examiner successivement la question dans les provinces de la Petite Pologne, de la Grande Pologne et enfin de la Masovie, pour comparer ensuite les résultats acquis et en tirer les conclusions. C’est ainsi que nous avons trouvé seulement une mention de prawidlnik en Petite Pologne, datant de 1322, tandis qu’en Grande Pologne on en trouve quatre, mais toutes datant de 1395 à 1400 et figurant dans les registres du tribunal de Kościan. Enfin en Masovie on en trouve 17 mentions entré 1388 et 1502. D’autre part nous sommes parvenus à enregistrer 51 homonymes latins de l’appellation polonais en question. Parmi eux en Petite Pologne et en Grande Pologne on rencontre le terme de mediator (10 fois). On le retrouve dans les documents élaborés avec participation du clergé ce qui indique qu’il était emprunté au droit romano-canonique non sans modification de son sens primitif. En Masovie on traduisait le mot prawidlnik — plus littéralement — par iusticiarius ou bien iusticionarius, parfois iustificarius et quand le notaire avait des difficultés pour trouver un homonyme approprié, par iudex, iudex testium ou bien d’une façon sporadique simplement par ministerialis.
L’analyse des sources a relevé que le prawidlnik était toujours designé par le juge, ou par le prince en tant que juge, pour un seul cas déterminé, — comme „prawidlnik illius causae”. Il pouvait être choisi ou bien parmi les différents officiers, ou bien fort souvent — parmi les nobles „fidedigni et bene famati” n’ayant pas des fonctions officielles. Par suite l’opinion selon laquelle le prawidlnik était identique avec le subcamerarius (ou en son remplacement avec le vicesubcamera- rius) n’a pas pu être retenue. C’est ainsi qu’on est parvenu à la conviction que le prawidlnik n’était pas un fonctionnaire, mais une personne de fides publica, choisi par le juge pour l’éxecution des actes determinés au cours du procès et dont les déclarations avaient la valeur d’une déposition officielle.
Les actes auxquels le prawidlnik prenait part se déroulaient en règle générale en dehors du prétoire. Parmi eux on doit mentionner les visites des lieux dans les litiges concernant la propriété des biens, l’établissement de leurs frontières, la fixation de l’existence et de l’étendue des servitudes. Dans l’exercice de ces fonctions le prawidlnik s’appuyait aussi bien sur le serment des interessés et des cojureurs, que sur le témoignage de la vicinia-communauté du village.
Le domaine dans lequel les fonctions du prawidlnik se dégagaient d’une façon assez nette était l’assistance à la déposition sous la foi du serment. Certaines sources indiquent que c’était le prawidlnik qui prononçait la formule du serment, en controlait le déroulement et certifiait ensuite devant le tribunal qu’il était prêté selon les règles établies.
Parmi les diverses dépositions jurées il faut distinguer la prestation du serment dans les procès ou la noblesse de quelqu’un était contesté. Dans les cas pareils c’était devant le prawidlnik que se passait l’expurgatio nobilitatis par le serment prêté par les répresentants de trois lignages (le plus souvent le lignage paternel, maternel et le troisième étranger à l’interéssé). Une exception pourtant doit être retenue: celle de la Grande Pologne, ou cette expurgation se passait devant le subcamerarius ou son remplaçant qui pouvait être ou bien son lieutenant — le vicesubcamerarius ou — très souvent — un simple noble désigné nommément par le subcamerarius pour chaque cas particulier. On l’appelait alors locum subcamerarii tenens et il s’approchait par ses fonctions au prawidlnik.
Un coup d’oeil sur les institutions dans les autres pays de l’Europe Orientale et Centrale nous relève l’existence des personnes de ’’foi publique”, connues dans divers pays slaves sous le nom de pristav en Serbie, Dalmatie, Bosnie, chez les Slaves Occidentaux comme en Poméranie à l’île de Rügen et en Russie médievale. Aussi le pristaldus connu dans les sources hongroises du XIe - XIIIe siècles n’est rien d’ autre que le pistav — terme latinisé. Leur sort était toutefois différent. Tandis qu’en Russie le renforcement du pouvoir monarchique a abouti à une „étatisation” du pristav qui devint à partir du XVe siècle un fonctionnaire judiciaire, en Hongrie le pristaldus a assez tôt abandonnée ses fonctions, qui ont passées en partie aux établissements de l’Église (évêchées, chapitres, abbayes) devenus pour longtemps les loci credibiles à défaut de l’existence des libri terrestres des juridictions et du notariat. En Pologne les fonctions du prawidlnik, ainsi que son autorité, diminuaient au cours du temps. Le coup décisif lui a été porté — à notre avis — par la diffussion de l’écriture dans la pratique judiciaire et en particulier par l’établissement des registres judiciaires. Au XVe siècle en Masovie on le rencontre toujours avec un huissier (en latin du pays: preco). La juxtaposition: „iusticiarius et preco” -est famillière aux sources du duché. On y voit que le prawidlnik a cessé de jouer un rôle indépendant et devint à la suite d’un compromis entre l’ancienne coutume et le développement du pouvoir judiciaire d’Etat — représentant de la société (ou plus strictement de la communitas nobi- lium). Il agit auprès de l’huissier pour s’identifier ensuite à lui (c’est alors qu’apparaît l’huissier appelé prawidlnik) et pour disparaître enfin, en lui cédant sa place.
Avec un siècle d’avance le prawidlnik a disparu en Grande Pologne et encore plus tôt en Petite Pologne ou ses fonctions ont passé depuis au tribunal terrestre de la noblesse (sinon à la cour du roi) — quant aux prestations des serments, et au subcamerarius — en ce qui concerne la délimitation des biens. C’est ainsi que les pouvoirs judiciaires et ses fonctionnaires ont englouti les restes d’une institution ancienne, établie sur le principe de la collaboration des boni viri dans l’administration de la justice. L’institution du prawidlnik, qui apparaît dans les sources aux dernières étapes de son existence, et dont nous avons essayé de reconstituer le rôle antérieur en remontant le cours des siècles, a vécue.
History (General) and history of Europe, History of Law
Machiko Hatsuda, Ondrej Hulık, William D. Linch
et al.
A-theory realizes U-duality symmetry by extending the string worldsheet to a higher dimensional brane worldvolume, in which the worldvolume and the spacetime belong to different representations of the exceptional group. The closure of the brane Virasoro algebra requires the Gauss law constraint. The Gauss law constraint promotes spacetime coordinates to gauge fields and extends the string worldsheet into the brane worldvolume. While the Virasoro constraint is used to reduce the spacetime coordinate, the Gauss law constraint is used to reduce both the worldvolume and the spacetime coordinates. As in conventional gauge theories, the treatment of the Gauss law constraint is a technically important aspect of the quantization of A-theory. We show that the string solution is only consistent solution of the Gauss law dimensional reduction condition for D=3 and 4 cases. This result implies that the physical symmetry of the theory is two-dimensional conformal symmetry, suggesting that the theory admits a string-like quantization. We further construct a string solution that is covariant under the exceptional group symmetry. The relation between this solution and the constant charge parameter appearing in the exceptional σ-model is also discussed.
Here we present a new class of optimality for coding systems. Members of that class are displaced linearly from optimal coding and thus exhibit Zipf's law, namely a power-law distribution of frequency ranks. Within that class, Zipf's law, the size-rank law and the size-probability law form a group-like structure. We identify human languages that are members of the class. All languages showing sufficient agreement with Zipf's law are potential members of the class. In contrast, there are communication systems in other species that cannot be members of that class for exhibiting an exponential distribution instead but dolphins and humpback whales might. We provide a new insight into plots of frequency versus rank in double logarithmic scale. For any system, a straight line in that scale indicates that the lengths of optimal codes under non-singular coding and under uniquely decodable encoding are displaced by a linear function whose slope is the exponent of Zipf's law. For systems under compression and constrained to be uniquely decodable, such a straight line may indicate that the system is coding close to optimality. We provide support for the hypothesis that Zipf's law originates from compression and define testable conditions for the emergence of Zipf's law in compressing systems.
This note proves a law of large numbers for predicting several steps ahead, which, in the case of uniformly bounded random variables, generalizes the standard law of large numbers for martingales; the standard law of large numbers corresponds to predicting one step ahead. Its main result shows that the law of large numbers holds for predicting $N$ uniformly bounded random variables $o(N)$ steps ahead, but it is much more precise and in some respects optimal. This law of large numbers is applied to a problem of decision making with a bounded loss function limiting the impact of each decision to $o(N)$ steps.
El 12 de mayo ocurrió el primer enfrentamiento de la guerra hispanoamericana en Puerto Rico (1898) con una batalla naval entre la Marina de Estados Unidos bajo el comando del almirante William T. Sampson y la Ciudad de San Juan, Puerto Rico. Durante el bombardeo, buques de Estados Unidos destruyeron estructuras militares e infraestructura civil, incluyendo un hospital, un orfelinato y una iglesia, además de causar 18 heridos y 5 muertes civiles. Aunque la literatura de la guerra hispanoamericana sugiere que el bombardeo de San Juan fue un acto ilegal de guerra por Estados Unidos, existe la necesidad de un análisis histórico jurídico a esos efectos, que incluya todas las fuentes primarias en recursos publicados y además la documentación localizada en archivos históricos, junto con el derecho internacional de ese período para comprender esta afirmación de una mejor forma. Por lo tanto, un análisis crítico de los hechos históricos, fuentes primarias y del derecho vigente durante ese periodo histórico podrá dilucidar el bombardeo de San Juan como un caso histórico donde la guerra a veces omite la justicia cuando bombardean contra civiles.
We consider random operators $Ω\to \mathcal{L}(\ell_p, \ell_p)$ for some $1 \leqslant p < \infty$. The law of large numbers is known in the case $p=2$ in the form of usual law of large numbers. Instead of sum of i.i.d. variables there may be considered the composition of random semigroups $e^{A_i t/n}$. We obtain the law of large numbers for the case $p \leqslant 2$.
Reshma Anna-Thomas, Sarah Burke-Spolaor, Casey J. Law
et al.
We report on the detection of radio bursts from the Galactic bulge using the real-time transient detection and localization system, realfast. The pulses were detected commensally on the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array during a survey of unidentified Fermi $γ$-ray sources. The bursts were localized to subarcsecond precision using realfast fast-sampled imaging. Follow-up observations with the Green Bank Telescope detected additional bursts from the same source. The bursts do not exhibit periodicity in a search up to periods of 480 s, assuming a duty cycle of < 20%. The pulses are nearly 100% linearly polarized, showing circular polarization up to 12%, and exhibit variable scattering on timescales of months. The arcsecond-level realfast localization links the source confidently with the Fermi $γ$-ray source and places it nearby (though not coincident with) an XMM-Newton X-ray source. Based on the source's overall properties, we discuss various options for the nature of this object and propose that it could be a young pulsar, a magnetar, or a binary pulsar system.
Judicial efficiency is critical to social stability. However, in many countries worldwide, grassroots courts face substantial case backlogs, and judicial decisions remain heavily dependent on judges' cognitive efforts, with insufficient intelligent tools to enhance efficiency. To address this issue, we propose a highly efficient law article recommendation approach combining a Knowledge Graph (KG) and a Large Language Model (LLM). First, we construct a Case-Enhanced Law Article Knowledge Graph (CLAKG) to store current law articles, historical case information, and their interconnections, alongside an LLM-based automated construction method. Building on this, we propose a closed-loop law article recommendation framework integrating graph embedding-based retrieval and KG-grounded LLM reasoning. Experiments on judgment documents from China Judgments Online demonstrate that our method boosts law article recommendation accuracy from 0.549 to 0.694, outperforming strong baselines significantly. To support reproducibility and future research, all source code and processed datasets are publicly available on GitHub (see Data Availability Statement).
The world today is described as postmodern. However, the forms of reli- gious life still present in it allow it to be seen as post-secular. The programmatic removal of religion from social life has not achieved results. The continued pres- ence of religion brings its characteristic values to social life. The world can draw on its unique normative intuition as expressed by Jürgen Habermas. The norma- tive dimension of religion is also constituted by its law. For this reason, a reflec- tion has been undertaken on the possibility of a dialogue between the law of the Church and the law in the world, in its postmodern view. An area of possible dia- logue is the unity of the idea of law expressed in the plurality of legal orders. The determinants of this idea include, among others, equity, legal security and justice, which were presented as reference points for the possibility of dialogue between law and canon law.
This paper details the implementation of a two stage underactuated control law for a CubeSat to reduce all angular rates to zero. This CubeSat has a diagonal inertia matrix where the principal axes of inertia are not equal. This is needed for momentum transfer between axes as shown by previous work in this area. The momentum transfer will provide control to the uncontrolled axis to reduce all angular rates of a CubeSat to zero. The underactuated control utilizes actuators on only two axes but still reduces all three angular rates to zero. The first stage utilizes one axis to control the uncontrolled axis to zero and then the second stage reduces the other two axes to zero. This control law is similar to other piece wise control laws but the difference lies in only using one axis to control the third axis. The control mechanism is an integrated two axis propulsion system. The control law is derived to show its viability and a fully non-linear six degree of freedom simulation tool is utilized to verify the derivation. The simulation tool is developed by the Facility of Aerospace Systems and Technology. Simulation results are shown for a 1U, 2U, and 6U CubeSat with three and two axis control. The two stage underactuated control law is compared to a proportional controller as well as a feedback linearization control law for comparison.
AbstractGender recognition is a crucial achievement for non-binary people. To better understand this right, this article combines comparative law with theoretical insights from anthropology to offer a discussion of non-binary recognition in European fundamental rights law. It identifies three approaches to such a right and critically assesses each of them. The first approach is denial, with the non-binary option being explicitly or implicitly rejected, as has occurred in French and Italian courts. The next approach is limited recognition, whereby a non-binary option is granted under specific limitations, such as when certain physical characteristics are present or when a claimant permanently identifies with the non-binary gender. This is the course of action that has been taken in German law. The third approach is gender self-determination, whereby individuals can obtain recognition on the basis of their declaration alone. This solution has been offered by the Belgian Constitutional Court. On the strength of findings from anthropology, the article argues that the first two models are incapable of genuinely engaging with gender diversity, while the third one offers more robust legal protection. The analysis presented here serves as an example of how anthropological insights can be effectively used to advance comparative law research.
The paper deals with the development of law in Czechoslovakia from its inception to the existence of the so-called First Republic, focusing in particular on the development of criminal law. The primary question addressed in the paper is whether there is legal continuity with the previous Austro-Hungarian legal system. Given that there were several legal orders in force in the aftermath of the establishment of Czechoslovakia, the next necessary question is how this situation was addressed. The paper presents examples from selected areas of criminal law, such as juvenile justice, national security laws, or military criminal norms, and intends to document the main legislative trends, namely the introduction of completely new legal regulations, the adoption of the original Austrian regulation and its nationwide application, or, last but not least, the adoption of both Austrian and Hungarian regulations with their simultaneous application. The codification attempts in the Criminal Code, which were not completed in the relevant period, have not been overlooked.
The independent migration of children today is a global phenomenon present in many regions worldwide, where unaccompanied minors seeking asylum do not enjoy full protection of their rights. Among their procedural safeguards, the right to legal assistance and representation is a fundamental right strictly related to the realization of other rights contained in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Nevertheless, despite the fundamental role that guardians and legal advisors play in the wellbeing of unaccompanied children seeking asylum, many issues are currently affecting the exercise and implementation of this fundamental right in several European Union Member States. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the content and scope of protection of this right under EU law, while highlighting the existence of possible ambiguities or gaps in current legal standards. Which EU law rules currently protect unaccompanied minors’ access to legal assistance? What changes are necessary in order to strengthen that protection for unaccompanied minors seeking asylum? These are some of the questions that this paper addresses in order to critically analyze the level of protection that Europe has provided to unaccompanied children’s right to legal assistance.
In 1687, Sir Issac Newton published The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in which the law of universal gravitation was derived. It is the first inverse-square law discovered in nature, combined with Coulomb's law in 1785, the two famous inverse-square laws become part of the foundation of physics. Why does nature prefer inverse-square laws over the laws of other forms? The question is still arousing broad discussion, and it is an important topic in physics. So far, the origin of inverse-square law is still under exploration although from the point of reductionism, the law of universal gravitation can be treated as the approximation of Einstein's general relativity under weak gravitation, and Coulomb's law could be derived from quantum electrodynamics. Here we discover a new inverse-square law between evaporating droplets deposited on a high energy solid substrate. For binary droplets, we show that the evaporation from a source droplet will create a surface tension gradient in the precursor film of a target droplet, resulting in a long-range inverse-square law force acting on the target droplet, and that the inverse proportion decay of the source vapor concentration in the space essentially contributes to the inverse-square form of the force. Furthermore, the inverse-square law force here is shown to hold for all experimental parameters tested, and other systems such as pure-liquid-droplet system and thermocapillary system, and it satisfies the superposition principle, not only suggesting exciting directions for future droplet research and applications, but also benefiting understanding of nature's predilection for inverse-square law.
AbstractThis article explores the different meanings of the right to housing in Europe in public and private relations with housing providers. In light of the fundamental right to housing's meaning in the case law of the European Court of Human Rights and the Court of Justice of the European Union, we offer a new reading of the CJEU judgments that have hitherto been heralded as extending the social dimension of EU (private) law. We submit that the emphasis on economic and procedural rights risks further ‘economisation’ of housing relations in Europe. While the possibilities to grant direct horizontal effect to the right to housing in EU law currently offer limited potential to counter this trend, private law provides part of the framework for a further balancing of social and economic elements in housing cases. Accordingly, we call for a debate on the specific aspects of horizontal relationships in the complex system of housing justice.
Over the past decade the political processes in the U.S. and a number of European states have shown ambiguous changes which reflected ideological transformations and regroupings of political elites. Developments within the U.S. political system have witnessed a deep split along ideological lines which was characterized by the revival of various right-wing and conservative currents within the Republican party and the increasing influence of left-liberal groups inside the Democratic party.
Taking into account the latest trends, the purpose of this article lays in the structural political analysis of political contradictions and regrouping processes within the U.S. political elites in the 2010s that prevailed during the presidencies of Barack Obama and Donald Trump. The authors emphasise that the crisis of traditional elites has not lead to the destruction of the bipartisan system, which remains the most important political institutional mechanism and ensures election of the executive branch, representative bodies and self-government at all levels. At the same time the recent trends within the political system demonstrated the destruction of such a specific phenomenon as a relative bipartisan consensus, which for a long time ensured the stability of power and the balance of interests among different groups of influence despite the regular change of the Republican and Democratic administrations.
As an intermediate result reflecting the transformation of the American traditional political establishment the authors note both the overall polarization of the attitudes of the Republican and Democratic parties, and the strengthening of ‘internal’ pluralism inside the Republicans and the Democrats as a result of growing divergence and exacerbation of contradictions between supporters of various ideological groupings and platforms. This was approved by an obvious increase of influence of center-left groups among the Democrats and the right-wingers among the Republicans. These differences caused a tough political confrontation between different groups of elites in such important areas as social policy, taxes and health care. Similar fundamental discrepancies manifest the vision of international affairs especially on foreign trade and principles of interaction with the traditional allies.
The exacerbation of political collisions ultimately led to an imbalance in the American political system and the loss of ability to achieve compromises between the leadership of the Republicans and Democrats. The authors conclude that the atomization of political elites is a projection of social stratification and polarization within the American society. These processes are not directly related to the personality of Donald Trump. Given the severity and critical aggravation of political contradictions, the US Presidential and Congressional elections on November 3, 2020 will not resolve the ongoing inter-elite conflict.
A law previously found for shear moduli of crystalline materials is developed and extended to all elastic moduli in solids and structures. Shear moduli were previously shown to depend only on specific volume. The bulk moduli of many materials and structures are now predicted analytically and empirically shown with unerring accuracy by observing the elasticity as a specific volume power law. The law is supported by experimental evidence from: foams, Schneebeli 2-dimensional graphene mats, metamaterials, fully dense metals, ceramics and minerals. This new, generalized, universal, elastic moduli law always describes materials that support shear stresses i.e., solids; it is shown that all elastic moduli are directly dependent only on the specific volume.