Hasil untuk "Law of Europe"

Corrado Caruso

The digital revolution has transformed the dissemination of messages and the construction of public debate. This article examines the disintermediation and fragmentation of the public sphere by digital platforms. Disinformation campaigns, that aim at assuming the power of determining a truth alternative to reality, highlight the need to enhance the traditional view of freedom of expression as negative freedom with an institutional perspective. The paper argues that freedom of expression should be seen as an institution of freedom, an organizational space leading to a normative theory of public discourse. This theory legitimizes democratic systems and requires proactive regulation to enforce its values.

José Fernando Lousada Arochena

La politización de la Justicia y la judicialización de la política se perciben por la ciudadanía como serias desviaciones del ideal de separación de poderes diseñado por Montesquieu. Pero la plasmación del ideal de separación de poderes fue distinta en los Estados Unidos de América, donde se admitió el control judicial de la constitucionalidad de las leyes, y en Francia y en los países europeos que siguieron su estela, como España, donde se implantó una carrera judicial burocratizada secuestrada por el Poder Ejecutivo a través de la ocupación política de altos cargos judiciales y de una disciplina de hierro. La transición del Estado liberal de Derecho al Estado constitucional de Derecho ha supuesto un cambio sustancial en la concepción de la función judicial, de la boca que dice la ley a ser guardián de las promesas. El Poder Judicial gana protagonismo frente al Poder Legislativo. En este nuevo contexto del Estado constitucional de Derecho, el estudio analiza la situación en España en relación con la judicialización de la política (control judicial de procesos legislativos; exigencia de responsabilidades a cargos políticos; denuncias de «lawfare») y en relación con la politización de la Justicia (que han derivado en una degradación institucional del Consejo General del Poder Judicial). Finalmente, se analizan los propósitos del Pacto de renovación del CGPJ alcanzado por los partidos mayoritarios y en especial si el Pacto ha supuesto mejora de presente y, sobre todo, hacia el futuro.

Maciej Rakowski

Kodeks karny Królestwa Hawajów z 1850 r. stanowił kodyfikację kompleksową i nowoczesną. Nie był jednak oryginalnym dziełem mieszkańców wysp. Opracował go młody amerykański prawnik William L. Lee na podstawie projektu kodeksu karnego dla stanu Massachusetts. Kodeks wpisywał się w gwałtowne przemiany wyspiarskiego społeczeństwa, dokonujące się pod wpływem białych przybyszów, w tym radykalnych protestanckich misjonarzy, przybywających z USA od 1820 r. Wprowadzał nowe prawo dla tubylców i nie był kodyfikacją, której głównym celem było uporządkowanie i usystematyzowanie wcześniejszych norm. Hawajski kodeks utrwalał nową dla tubylców, chrześcijańską moralność pojmowaną na sposób purytański. Wiele uwagi poświęcono w nim uregulowaniu przestępstw natury seksualnej, a także zachowań związanych z produkcją i sprzedażą alkoholu, zaś ochronę własności oparto na europejskim, a nie tradycyjnym, rozumieniu tego prawa. Nowoczesność kodeksu polegała nie tylko na jasnym sformułowaniu przepisów definiujących typy czynów zabronionych. Mocną stroną aktu z 1850 r. jest część ogólna, z definicją winy i usiłowania, określeniem kontratypów i uregulowaniem problemu udziału z przestępstwie.

Jakub Novák

This paper introduces the specifics of war marriages in the Czechoslovak Legions in Russia during the period of their involvement in the Russian Civil War. After a brief introduction to the historical context, it aims to describe the restrictions imposed on marriages for Czechoslovak legionnaires and their reasons which eventually led to a temporary total ban of war marriages within the Legion for several months after the 1st Convention of Czechoslovak army in the summer of 1918. The paper also explains why and under what conditions the marriages were later re-enabled, what the consequences of marrying without permission were and what legal means the army used to combat high numbers of illegal marriages within its ranks.

Juan Carlos Prado Rodríguez

Previas consideraciones sobre el entorno del contrato de transporte marítimo de mercancías en la praxis comercial romana, la presente investigación aborda el criterio de la aequitas contributionis y su relación intrínseca con la prohibición de enriquecerse con detrimento ajeno en la lex Rhodia de iactu. En efecto, mediante esta costumbre náutica, los propietarios de las mercancías transportadas que se salvaron del echazón, a raíz del periculum del hundimiento de la embarcación, debían resarcir a aquellos locatarios que perdieron las suyas, al objeto de restablecer la aequitas patrimonial quebrantada entre los locatarios del servicio de transporte por el iactus mercium. Este restablecimiento se efectivizaba a través de las acciones procesales que nacían de la locatio conductio operis estipulada entre los vectores y el magister navis, además del recurso en favor de este último al ius retentionis. Y, con base en los referidos mecanismos, el iudex procedía a determinar (aestimatio) el quantum contributionis.

Bezpala Halyna

The purpose of the article is to reveal, on the basis of the content of foreign publications, the directions of international cooperation, interaction and support by the German-speaking world of Ukrainian scientific communities in the conditions of martial law in Ukraine. Research methods are based on system and structural approaches, including an interdisciplinary approach. Methods of analysis and synthesis, descriptive and source research were also used. The scientific novelty. Europe without war. Life in peace, prosperity and freedom. But where are we today? The continent and the community are in crisis. Ukraine is at war. Statements of solidarity and humanitarian aid arrive in Ukraine every day. Conclusions. Research and analysis of the initiatives of international scientific communities to support Ukraine in the conditions of martial law makes it possible to ascertain the strong global resonance, high cohesion and consolidation of the forces of international scientific communities to counteract the threats of destruction of cultural heritage, in particular book collections of libraries and electronic library and information resources. It is rather difficult to single out the most important aid initiatives, since all of them are aimed at ensuring the preservation of the cultural heritage of Ukraine and, of course, are valuable in modern conditions.

Questions related to the EU’s ability to foster change in the behaviour of third countries through sanctions have gained salience over the past three decades. This article explores how the nature and type of EU restrictive measures, initially conceived as targeted, preventive and temporary measures, have evolved considerably since then. The EU sanctions against Belarus are used as an illustrative case study in order to shed light on the evolutions within the EU’s sanctions practice. This article first examines the erosion of the targeted character of EU sanctions against Belarus through the broadening of listing criteria and the increasing recourse to sectoral sanctions. It then questions the temporary character of EU sanctions against Belarus by highlighting their indefinite duration and cyclicity. Last but not least, it is argued that EU sanctions against Belarus have an increasingly punitive character. The article concludes with an analysis of the implications that the EU’s evolving sanctions practice can have for the current EU’s sanctions policy toward Belarus as well as for its other sanctions regimes.

Nina Gumzej

The Google Spain judgment established a search engine as a sui generis controller and the related ‘right to be forgotten’ (right to delisting) under data protection legislation, despite the controversies surrounding it primarily on account of the logic of the search engine operator’s functioning and its consequent inability to comply with certain basic data protection requirements. Resulting interpretations, ie the contouring of data protection legislation under CJEU case law (the Google Spain and the GC and Others judgment), are examined in this paper in detail in relation to the currently applicable GDPR provisions, which allows conclusions to be drawn on the substance of the (sui generis) delisting right, the legal standing of data subjects, the assessment of delisting requests, and the related role and responsibilities of search engine operators. While neither removal from the source web page is required nor can delisting be denied exclusively on the basis of the publisher’s right to freedom of information and expression, analysis shows several manifestations of inherent interweavement with concerns of freedom of information and expression, which at the same time intrinsically oppose data protection and privacy rights. The issue is further challenged by a lack of harmonisation in the area of reconciling privacy and data protection rights with the freedom of expression and information. The last section of the paper discusses the rationale behind the recently established duty of adjusting, ie rearranging, search results in certain cases where delisting requests were denied, the implications for the operators, and the future outlook.

Eve Buland

(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2021 6(1), 57-67 | European Forum Insight of 14 April 2021 | (Table of Contents) I. Propos introductifs et objet de la controverse. - II. De l'importance de l'étourdissement préalable: le cas particulier de l'étourdissement réversible. - III. L'existence de sensibilités européennes comme justification à l'autonomie des Etats membres dans la détermination du rapport bien-être animal et religion. - IV. La valorisation croissante d'une éthique animale: une prise en compte jurisprudentielle de la sensibilité des européens à l'égard de la protection animale. - V. Le marché intérieur garant de la liberté religieuse. - VI. Réflexions conclusives et perspectives d'évolution de la législation européenne en matière d'abattage des animaux. | (Abstract) The Court of Justice of the European Union is once again invited to rule on the conciliation between animal welfare and freedom of religion. Mainly relying on the lack of consensus among the Member States, the Court finds that a national legislation introducing an obligation of reversible stunning is admitted according to Regulation (EC) 1099/2009, art. 13 TFEU and art. 10 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

Beatričė Sipavičiūtė

The originality concept in the legal systems of Europen Union countries. The only condition an artwork must satisfy in order to be protected by copyright is originality requirement. Different interpretations of the originality concept in various jurisdictions and application of different criteria, results in a lack of legal harmonization in Europe Union countries. The research is relevant because it deals with absence of legal harmonization in the copyright laws, therefore, Europe Union Member States have different criteria for the concept of originality and the exceptional right to decide which criteria to apply. The aim of the article is to find out the different criteria of originality concept in various Europe Union countries. The most important constraints are multilateral agreements that reduce the flexibility of states to change national copyright laws. The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights agreement and Berne Convention on the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works may be categorized as restrictions. The problem of the concept of originality arises not only from the Court of Justice of the European Union case-law but also from Europe Union directives regulating copyright and describing artwork as “author's own intellectual creation”. In conclusion, it is worth noting that in order to reach the harmonization in Europe Union legal system, the interpretation of originality concept must be unified. Neither the Court of Justice of the European Union case-law nor the Europe Union Directives provide specific criteria of originality requirement. However, this is not surprising, as national laws can have different interpretations of originality requirement, for example originality requirement is not defined in French and United Kingdom legislation, which is why court decisions in these countries are based on case law. In German law, the interpretation of originality concept is linked to the “author’s own intellectual creation”, but court decisions are also based on case law. It is clear that courts interpret the concept of originality differently. Although the Court of Justice of the European Union strives to harmonize the concept of originality in the legal systems of the Member States, both the specific meaning of the concept and its scope are still unclear. If interpretation of originality requirement would not be so abstract, perhaps legal harmonization would be easier to reach. Conclusions: In all jurisdictions, the artwork must be original in order to obtain copyright protection. Originality consists of creativity and individuality elements. The definition of criteria for the concept of originality depends on the national laws and case law of each Europe Union Member State. Europe Union legislation stipulates that an artwork is considered original only if it complies criterion of "author's own intellectual creation". It is important to determine the author's personal relationship with the work and the author's creative and free choices. Since the Europe Union Directives and the Court of Justice of the European Union decisions provide only an abstract concept of originality, without specifying specific originality criteria that national courts could use to protect copyright works, there is a lack of harmonization in legal systems.

Juana María Gil Ruiz

Han pasado cuarenta años desde que se aprobara la Constitución española y veintitrés desde que España ratificara la Declaración y la Plataforma de Acción de la IV Conferencia Mundial sobre la Mujer de Beijing (1995). Esta última supuso el compromiso de incorporación del principio del gender mainstreaming en la totalidad de los procesos normativos —elaboración, interpretación y aplicación de la normas— y en la totalidad de las políticas públicas. Y esta misma fecha debiera indicar, en consecuencia, un antes y un después en el hacer jurídico y político. Este compromiso vinculante compele a revisar la Constitución e incorporar la perspectiva de género de manera principal y transversal, desde el Preámbulo (donde se blindaría) hasta su parte dispositiva. Este trabajo se centra especialmente en el artículo 35 y en su proclama referida al deber y al derecho al trabajo, habida cuenta de que la brecha salarial, la necesidad de reequilibrar la vida laboral, familiar y personal y la necesidad de combatir todas las formas de violencia contra las mujeres, se erigen entre los grandes desafíos ciudadanos del siglo XXI.

Iwona Jakimowicz-Pisarska, Stylianos Ioannis Tzagkarakis

Populism is a phenomenon that has developed particularly in the years after the crisis in Europe. This does not mean that it did not exist in the pre-crisis era, but its impetus at this time creates significant pressures for both democracy and the very future of Europe. However, populism exist both in the right and the left of the political spectrum, but its methods goes beyond the ideological contradictions on the road to gaining and preserving power. The comparative study of these features and an attempt to categorize them is the basic aim of this article. Therefore, we use the example of the right-wing populist party “Law and Justice” which is governing Poland and the left-wing populist party, SYRIZA, which is the ruling party in Greece, in order to highlight both the differences, but most importantly the similarities in their strategies and methods.

Cristina Ciancio

Al dolore lacerante che colpisce un genitore e tutta la comunità dinanzi alla perdita di un bambino, la coscienza cristiana e le istituzioni che ha espresso si sono dovute a lungo confrontare con un altro dramma nel dramma, che poteva colpire laddove i piccoli fossero deceduti prima di ricevere il battesimo. Vale a dire prima di ricevere quel sacramento ritenuto necessario a mondarli dal peccato originale e così garantire loro l’accoglienza nella Chiesa e la salvezza dell’anima. In assenza di questo sacramento era preclusa per questi piccoli la sepoltura in terra consacrata, nonché la possibilità per genitori e familiari di dedicare preghiere e liturgie in suffragio della loro anima, cercando così di consolarsi su un loro destino di beatitudine. A partire dal XIII secolo la dottrina tomistica del limbus puerorum, mai esistita come dogma della Chiesa, descrivendo un luogo intermedio cui accedevano le anime di questi bambini cercò di attenuare la severità dell’interpretazione agostiniana che non prevedeva alternative alla dannazione dell’Inferno per chi non fosse stato purificato con il battesimo. Non si riuscì, però, a risolvere le non poche problematiche per il continuo potenziale conflitto tra idee diffuse di giustizia e misericordia e le necessità di coerenza e controllo dell’organizzazione anche materiale della società cristiana che questa dottrina continuava a provocare. Il divieto di sepoltura in terra consacrata restava intatto e così l’esclusione dalla visione beatifica di Dio. Le fonti e i dibattiti ci restituiscono i tratti di una secolare difficoltà da parte della Chiesa occidentale e delle sue istituzioni a dare un assetto stabile e definitivo al problema della morte senza battesimo e a tutte le sue implicazioni anche giuridiche. Queste ultime apparvero da subito numerose, così come numerose furono quelle medico legali che con il tempo si continuarono ad intrecciare in questo dibattito. Il battesimo è stato per secoli anche il primo momento in cui le nascite venivano registrate, ed un suo ritardo o assenza potevano implicare la possibilità di occultarle e, di conseguenza, occultare anche eventuali infanticidi. La massiccia campagna di sensibilizzazione rivolta a parroci, levatrici e da un certo momento in poi anche accouchers e chirurghi affinché impartissero senza esitazioni il battesimo nei parti difficili in cui era a rischio la sopravvivenza del bambino, avviata con particolare veemenza dalle gerarchie ecclesiastiche dopo la Controriforma, aveva portato ad un dibattito sul parto cesareo ed altre pratiche mediche potenzialmente omicide per la madre in cui il bilanciamento tra il diritto alla vita ed alla salute della madre e quello speculare del feto impegnarono a lungo i giuristi quanto i teologi e i medici. Tra i tentativi di dare risposte a genitori e comunità incapaci di accettare la mancata salvezza per le anime di piccoli che non avevano potuto compiere alcun peccato, si diffuse la controversa credenza nei miracoli dei santuari del “répit”, o della “doppia morte”. Luoghi in cui secondo alcune tradizioni locali, i bambini morti senza battesimo, grazie alle intense preghiere condotte da donne devote o eremiti, potevano “resuscitare” per il breve tempo necessario ad impartire loro il sacramento, dopo il quale morivano definitivamente nella grazia divina. Un miracolo molto contestato dalla Chiesa ma che consentiva ai genitori affranti di ritornare alle proprie comunità con attestati, spesso redatti con tutte le formalità dai notai del luogo, che certificavano l’avvenuto risveglio, il conseguente battesimo, e il nuovo decesso, documenti che consentivano la regolare sepoltura ecclesiastica dei piccoli e l’assicurazione a tutta la collettività che i familiari avevano fatto ogni cosa in loro potere per ricongiungersi con i propri bambini nell’aldilà.

Ilya M. Ezhov

The prolonged migration crisis in Europe has led not only to social upheaval on the continent, but also to reforms in the migration law. The author analyzes the origins and foundations of political asylum as a major aspect of international law and its impact on the development of the migration crisis in Europe. The author uses a combination of a systemic, comparative and historical (historicalgenetic) methods. The aim of the study is to identify characteristic features and analyze the history of the development of the procedure for granting political asylum by European countries and the impact of the right to asylum on the entire migration policy of Europe. The study is interdisciplinary in nature at the intersection of the theory and history of international relations, law, sociology and political science.

Matković Aleksandar

This paper is dedicated to the analysis of the Council of Europe's activities concerning harmful actions of new religious movements. Within the first part of the paper, the author analysed Council of Europe's recommendations directed towards new religious movements. Within the second part, the causes for such Coucil's activism were examined. The third part is focused on establishing the relationship between the activities of the Council of Europe and national anti-cult strategies. Inside the final part, noticed tendencies and regularities were highlighted, together with the general summarization of the achieved insights. Among other things, it was concluded that the Council took a very cautious, liberal and tolerant attitude in relation to the matter of new religious movements. By recommending Member States exclusively to study these issues and educate the population, the Council clearly suggested the avoidance of legislative and other invasive anti-cult measures. Hence, the potential impact of the Council's recommendations can be sought exclusively within those countries that hold similar, liberal and non-invasive approach. By contrast, it is not justifiable to link such Council's influence with the policies of those countries that, contrary to recommendations 1178 and 1412, have opted for more radical (legislative and other) steps. On the other hand, it seems reasonable to assume that, on the contrary, countries with anti-cult legislation and other invasive anti-cult measures could easily influence the radicalization of the position of the Council of Europe, which can be noticed within the latest, yet not officially adopted, documents of the Council: Document 12595 and Report 13441.

Leonard Bianchi

Ustrój polityczny młodej Republiki Czechosłowackiej często określamy — nie wdając się w głębsze badania — jako burżuazyjno-demokratyczny. Przywykliśmy również uważać go za bardziej demokratyczny od ustroju panującego wówczas na Węgrzech czy w Polsce. Jeśli jednak przyjrzymy się bliżej tym zwłaszcza instytucjom prawnym i państwowym, które mają największe znaczenie dla oceny ustroju politycznego, dojdziemy do wniosku, że Republika Czechosłowacka w pierwszych latach swego istnienia — zwłaszcza w Słowacji — zawierała niewiele elementów demokracji. Aparat państwowy spełniał zadania dyktatury klasowej i pozostawiał tylko ograniczony obszar dla realizacji wolności obywatelskich.

Tadeusz Maciejewski

Archeologia prawna narodziła się w Polsce dopiero przed kilkunastu laty, podczas gdy w państwach Europy Zachodniej była przedmiotem zainteresowań już w XIX w., a obecnie ma w nich znaczące osiągnięcia. Różnorodność zabytków archeologicznoprawnych zmusza do ich selekcji i uporządkowania. W tym względzie przyjmowane są liczne kryteria, częstokroć polemiczne. Na podkreślenie zasługuje zatem idea koncentracji takich zabytków, które pełniły w przeszłości jednorodne funkcje związane bezpośrednio z wymiarem sprawiedliwości. Zachowane relikty materialne, jakkolwiek wyszły z użycia, wielokrotnie nie uległy zapomnieniu czy zniszczeniu, a to co przetrwało podlega ekspozycji. Potwierdzeniem tego jest zorganizowanie w kilku miastach Europy Zachodniej (Rothenburgu, Regensburgu, Toledo czy Salzburgu) specjalnych muzeów kryminalnych eksponujących dawne narzędzia wykonywania tortur i kar śmierci. Z reguły są one stałe i mieszczą się w zamkach, ratuszach czy dawnych izbach tortur. Zasadniczym wyjątkiem są zbiory włoskie prezentowane w ramach wystawy „Strumenti di tortura medioewo”, która ma charakter objazdowy. Ekspozycja ta prezentowana była w większości miast włoskich oraz w kilku krajach europejskich, zaś piszący obejrzał ją niegdyś w Wenecji. Obecnie staraniem komisarzy wystawy, ze strony włoskiej Pana Franca Leonardiego, a ze strony polskiej Pana Piotra Buczkowskiego, została ona sprowadzona do Polski i jest eksponowana w kilku większych miastach pod nazwą „Średniowieczne narzędzia tortur”. Wystawę zapoczątkowano latem 1995 roku w Gdańsku, a następnie mogli ją obejrzeć mieszkańcy Szczecina, Koszalina, Gorzowa, Warszawy, a w dalszej kolejności również innych ośrodków.

Enrique Linde Paniagua

Agustín Ruiz Robledo

Władysław Rozwadowski

L’article constitue la continuation de l’étude sur le rescrit de Marc-Aurèle relatif à la compensation, dont la première partie a été déjà publiée dans cette même revue (Tome XXVI, c. 2). Tout d’abord, l’auteur s’occupe d’une exégèse détaillée des sources suivantes: D. 44, 4, 4, 8; 16, 2, 4; Seneca, de benef. VI, 4; D. 16, 2, 15; 44, 4, 2, 7; 13, 1, 14, 2; 16, 2, 2; 16, 2, 5; 16, 2, 8; 46, 8, 8, 1; 16, 2, 22; 16; 18; Paul. Sent. II, 5, 3; D. 16, 2, 23 et 21. Il en tire la conclusion que, dans la version primitive, toutes ces sources n’ont pas rapport à la compensation du banquier ou du bonorum emptor, ni à la compensation dans la cognitio extra ordinem, mais, tout simplement, elles concernent la compensation des prétentions stricti iuris faite par le demandeur avant la litis contestatio — pour ne pas s’exposer à une exception. Une telle exception introduisait le Préteur dans la formule sur la demande du défendeur à condition qu’il soutenait d’avoir une créance réciproque, pouvant être aussi stricti iuris. Originairement, c’était l'exception in factum, qui, probablement, à l’époque de Julien a été remplacée par l’exception de dol. Pourtant, avant le rescrit de Marc-Aurèle, celle-ci n’était appliquée que de cas en cas et chaque fois à discretion du Préteur. En effet, cette exception était efficace à condition que la reclamation du demandeur ce quod redditurus est fut vraiment traitée par le juge comme dol. En conclusion, l’auteur exprime l’opinion que l’exception de dol comme moyen de la compensation n’était pas introduite par le rescrit de Marc-Aurèle. Cette constitution donna seulement à la pratique judiciaire et aux juristes romains le fondement pour une large application de cette exception. D’où la thèse justinienne „in strictis iudiciis ex rescriptio divi Marci apposita doli mali exceptione compensatio inducebatur” (I. 4, 6, 30). L’égalisation justinienne de la compensation des obligations bonae fidei et stricti iuris entraîna en effet une nouvelle rédaction des textes examinés par l’auteur. Mais cette innovation ne semble pas avoir eu une valeur essentielle. Donc, l’opinion commune, que, primitivement, la plupart de ces sources ne concerne pas la compensation ordinaire resultante d’une crainte de l’exception de dol (ou in factum), mais qu’elles sont relatives à la compensation du banquier ou à la compensation dans le procès cognitif, provoque une forte critique. Dans la plupart de cas, cette hypothèse est fondée sur les sources accusées d’être interpolées. L’auteur soutient la thèse que le droit romain classique traitait comme compensation aussi une compensation spontanée du demandeur. Cette thèse dérive d'une interprétation des sources reconnues par l’auteur comme authentiques.