Through the proposed manuscript, we will describe the development and implementation of a graduate-level Indigenous Psychology course offered in Spring 2025 through the University of Alberta Faculty of Education. “We” are faculty members in professional psychology programs at the University of Alberta. Together, we developed and co-instructed the course. We open this proposal by introducing ourselves, beginning with Gwendolyn.
My name is Gwendolyn Villebrun. I am Dene/Metis and I am, along with my late mother, a member of the K’atlodeeche First Nation (located near Hay River, NT). My nehiyaw/Metis father is from Fort Chipewyan, AB. I was raised in the NT, but have lived most of my adult life in Amiskwacîwâskahikan, Edmonton, AB located on treaty 6 territory. I have been a registered counselling psychologist for 20 years and have served primarily urban Indigenous people impacted by the Residential Schools.
My name is Melissa Tremblay. I am a mother of three children, citizen of the Métis Nation of Alberta and member of the Lac St Anne Métis Community Association, located in rural Alberta west of Amiskwacîwâskahikan. On my dad’s side of the family, we come from Cree and Métis people, and on my mom’s side, we have French and Norwegian relatives.
Having introduced ourselves, we next turn to background information from the research literature to situate our decision to offer a graduate course in Indigenous psychology.
Theoretical Significance and Practical Importance
Given the harms that the profession of psychology has enacted on Indigenous peoples combined with the ongoing impacts of colonization, it is necessary to develop graduate programs that support the engagement of trainees in social justice activities, mitigate misunderstanding, and promote culturally safe practices, specific to Indigenous cultures and ways of knowing (CPA, 2018; Fellner, 2020). To the authors’ knowledge, the only published account of an Indigenous-specific psychology course offering was carried out by Trenholm and colleagues (2019), who described challenges and opportunities that arose in developing a graduate certificate in Indigenous counselling in New Brunswick. Therefore, although increasing attention is being paid to Indigenous ways of knowing in graduate programs, literature related to professional psychology courses in Canada is limited, and there is a lack of documentation of ways in which Indigenous-specific professional psychology graduate courses can be developed and implemented.
Class Structure and Reflections
Through this manuscript, we will discuss the process of course development, as well as our course structure, objectives, and experiences as co-instructors. We were intentional to engage in careful consultation and planning for over two years before our course began. The course provided an immersive experience including ceremony, engagement with Elders and knowledge keepers, ongoing critical self-reflection, time on the land, academic learning, and fostering of connections. We will share the reasoning behind the decisions we made regarding course structure and implementation, and reflect on the successes and challenges we faced as co-instructors of this unique course. Finally, we will discuss implications for other professional psychology programs seeking to offer content in Indigenous Psychology.
AbstractThis research examines the passivization of sentences with ditransitive verbs in Persian, based on the notion of symmetric move. The two objects of these sentences can move to the specifier of the tense head in the passive sentence. However, according to the Shortest Move principle in the Minimalism Programme, only the nearest constituent to the probe head should be allowed to move. The study results, based on Persian language samples, indicate that the direct and indirect object can move to the specifier of the tense head in passive sentences with ditransitive verbs but moving the indirect object to this position produces semantically marked sentence. Furthermore, making the passive voice of these sentences is free from the specificity and definiteness feature of the direct object, which is determined by the presence or absence of the accusative case form ra. This study also found that the linear order of objects and the semantic roles of the indirect object in the active sentence do not affect the feasibility of transforming sentences with ditransitive verbs into the passive form in Persian language.IntroductionBased on the traditional notion of ditransitive verbs, also known as three-placed predicates, these verbs have one direct and one indirect object. In Persian, the direct object, when definite, is marked by the preposition ra, while the indirect object, regardless of its definiteness, is introduced by a preposition and can carry various thematic roles such as beneficiary, goal, place, tool, or source.Citko (2011a) categorizes languages according to whether, in passivization, the direct object, the indirect object, or both can become the subject of the sentence. In some languages, only one of the objects can be promoted to subject position in passives (asymmetric passive), whereas in others, both the direct and indirect objects can undergo this movement (symmetric passive). Citko (2011a:5) provided empirical evidence supporting the existence of symmetry in syntax and argued that syntactic operations (such as merge, move, and label) are inherently symmetric.In the hierarchical structure of passive sentences containing three-placed predicates, Citko (2011a:109) identifies a probe that has an uninterpretable EPP feature, along with two nominal groups—the direct and indirect objects—that each bear an interpretable [N] feature. This syntactic arrangement is represented in the following figure: Figure 1. The hierarchical structure of ditransitive sentence based on Citko (2011a:109) Citko's research demonstrated that in languages like English, Norwegian, and Icelandic, both the direct and indirect objects (labeled α and β) can move to the specifier of the λ-head to satisfy the uninterpretable feature. However, in some languages, only one of these objects can move due to the Shortest Movement principle, which dictates that only the nearest constituent can occupy the specifier position.This research investigates three primary questions in the context of Persian:Is it possible to passivize sentences with ditransitive verbs in Persian?Can both direct and indirect objects move to the specifier of the tense head in Persian passives and serve as the subject?If both movements are possible, do the resulting passive sentences differ in form or meaning?Literature ReviewThree-placed predicates have been extensively studied in various languages within the generative grammar framework. Scholars such as Oehrle (1976), Czepluch (1982), Kayne (1984), Siewierska (1998), Peterson (2007), and Citko (2011a, Citko et al. 2017) have explored this topic in languages other than Persian. In Persian, notable studies include Moayedi and Lotfi (2013), Zarei et al. (2019), and Tabibzadeh (2006).A key cross-linguistic difference relates to the capacity for symmetric passive constructions—that is, whether both direct and indirect objects can move to the specifier of the tense head in the passive voice. This topic has been prominently investigated in Bantu languages. For example, in Swahili, both the direct object and the indirect object with a locative role can be promoted to subject position in passive constructions, resulting in grammatical sentences. However, other indirect objects, such as those with the thematic roles of beneficiary or goal, cannot be promoted in the same way.Negonyani (1996:38-39) explained that when forming a passive sentence from an active sentence containing a direct object and an indirect object with beneficiary or goal roles, only the indirect object can become the subject in the passive form. Movement of the direct object to the subject position in such cases leads to ungrammatical sentences.MethodologyThis research applies the Symmetric Move framework proposed by Citko (2011a) to investigate passivization of ditransitive verbs in Persian. In this model, both the direct and indirect objects in a ditransitive construction are candidates for movement to the specifier of the tense head in passives. Citko (2011a:109) identifies four typological patterns regarding the movement of objects in passives:Only the indirect object moves to the specifier of the tense head (e.g., Danish).Only the direct object moves (e.g., Spanish and German, where indirect objects have distinct case marking).Both objects can move, yielding grammatical sentences (e.g., English and Icelandic).Neither object can move to the specifier of the tense head.Additionally, Citko (2011a:145) proposed that case valuation for direct and indirect objects in applicative constructions originates from two syntactic heads: the applicative head and the little vP head. If both objects carry structural case features, the applicative head assigns the case for the direct object, and the little vP head handles the indirect object’s case valuation:Figure 2: Valuing the case feature of the direct and indirect objects based on Citko (2011a:145) In the process of passivization, the passive maximal projection head absorbs the case-assigning capability of one of these heads. If the ability of the little vP head to value the case of the indirect object is absorbed, the tense head will assign case to the indirect object, prompting its movement to the specifier position via the EPP feature. Conversely, if the applicative head’s case assignment ability is absorbed, the direct object is assigned case by the tense head and moves accordingly. This theoretical framework accounts for cross-linguistic variation regarding which object can move in passive constructions. Whether the applicative head or little vP head is neutralized by the passive projection determines the path of object movement.ConclusionBy applying Citko’s (2011a) Symmetric Move framework to Persian, this study examined various constructions containing ditransitive verbs, while considering factors like word order, animacy, definiteness, and thematic roles of the objects.The results indicate that in Persian, ditransitive verbs can indeed be passivized, and both direct and indirect objects are structurally capable of moving to the specifier of the tense head in passive constructions. However, when the indirect object moves to this position, the resulting sentence tends to be semantically marked, suggesting a degree of pragmatic or interpretive markedness even though the structure is grammatical.Moreover, the study found that semantic features of the direct object, such as animacy, and the thematic roles of the indirect object (beneficiary, goal, place, tool, etc.) do not constrain the formation of passive sentences in Persian. Additionally, the relative word order of the two objects in the active sentence does not affect the possibility or grammaticality of forming the passive sentence.In summary, Persian exhibits a type of symmetric passive capability, comparable to languages like English and Icelandic, although certain movements, particularly involving the indirect object, result in semantically marked outputs. This insight enriches the typological understanding of Persian in the context of passivization and object movement in ditransitive constructions.
Language and Literature, Language. Linguistic theory. Comparative grammar
Marzouk Islam, Oberhollenzer Simon, Tschuchnigg Franz
The success of numerical analysis depends on several factors. One of the keys factors is the accurate determination of constitutive model parameters. Determining these parameters from in-situ tests has several advantages compared to laboratory tests, from lower costs to minimal disturbance of the soil. However, it is not possible to derive soil parameters directly from in-situ tests results, since correlations are required. The literature offers a wide range of correlations which increases the uncertainty during interpretation. The ongoing research project APD (Automated Parameter Determination) investigates the possibilities of automated parameter identification from in-situ tests using a graph-based approach. In the present paper, existing correlations – developed for cone penetration tests - are validated by comparing their output to laboratory results. The Norwegian GeoTest Sites (NGTS) infrastructure project consists of five tests sites in different soils in Norway. The data from the soft clay site located in Onsoy, south-eastern Norway was used in the validation process. A web-based application “Datamap” that has been developed to capture, organize, and classify geotechnical research data has been used to obtain in-situ and laboratory tests data. The further validation of existing correlations to derive accurate constitutive parameters from in-situ tests is part of ongoing research.
This article explores the Scottish discourse on the Nordic region, that is, dominant conceptualisations of the Nordic region in contemporary Scotland in the context of the current Scottish nation-building project. Since the early 2000s, the Nordic region has received wide political attention and been presented as a viable and desirable role model for Scottish development by key political and social actors, including the Scottish Government and the Scottish National Party (SNP). This interest in the Nordic countries and the idea that they offer an alternative for Scotland which is line with dominant self-images of Scotland as egalitarian and social democratic has established itself as a central argument and aspect of the Scottish independence movement and the wider Scottish public debate. This article examines the historical development of the discourse on the Nordic region in Scotland, and its content by showing how the Nordic region is a multifaceted concept which intersects with Scottish nationalism and long-standing associations to the North. The Nordic region, in the Scottish context, is hence both a reality and a myth, a practical example and an idea. This dual quality is at the heart of the appeal and resilience of the Nordic region in contemporary Scotland, making the Nordic region Scotland’s main positive Other.
Keywords
The Nordic region, Scottish nationalism, the Other, discourse, conceptualisations of North
Tora Julie Slørdal, Guttorm Brattebø, Thomas Geisner
et al.
Abstract Aim Many trauma patients have associated orthopaedic injuries at admission. The existing literature regarding orthopaedic trauma often focuses on single injuries, but there is a paucity of information that gives an overview of this group of patients. Our aim was to describe the differences in characteristics between polytrauma patients ≥ 65 and < 65 years of age suffering orthopaedic injuries. Methods Patients registered in the Norwegian Trauma Registry (NTR) with an injury severity score (ISS) > 15 and orthopaedic injuries, who were admitted to Haukeland University Hospital in 2016–2018, were included. Data retrieved from the patients’ hospital records and NTR were analysed. The patients were divided into two groups based on age. Results The study comprised 175 patients, of which 128 (73%) and 47 (27%) were aged < 65 (Group 1) and ≥ 65 years (Group 2), respectively. The ISS and the new injury severity score (NISS) were similar in both groups. The dominating injury mechanism was traffic-related and thoracic injury was the most common location of main injury in both groups. The groups suffered a similar number of orthopaedic injuries. A significantly higher proportion of Group 1 underwent operative treatment for their orthopaedic injuries than in Group 2 (74% vs. 53%). The mortality in Group 2 was significantly higher than that in Group 1 (15% vs. 3%). In Group 2 most deaths were related to traffic injuries (71%). High energy falls and traffic-related incidents caused the same number of deaths in Group 1. In Group 1 abdominal injuries resulted in most deaths, while head injuries was the primary reason for deaths in Group 2. Conclusions Although the ISS and NISS were similar, mortality was significantly higher among patients aged ≥ 65 years compared to patients < 65 years of age. The younger age group underwent more frequently surgery for orthopaedic injuries than the elderly. There may be multiple reasons for this difference, but our study does not have sufficient data to draw any conclusions. Future studies may provide a deeper understanding of what causes treatment variation between age groups, which would hopefully help to further develop strategies to improve outcome for the elderly polytrauma patient.
Medical emergencies. Critical care. Intensive care. First aid
Gabriela Czibula, Andrei Mihai, Alexandra-Ioana Albu
et al.
Short-term quantitative precipitation forecast is a challenging topic in meteorology, as the number of severe meteorological phenomena is increasing in most regions of the world. Weather radar data is of utmost importance to meteorologists for issuing short-term weather forecast and warnings of severe weather phenomena. We are proposing <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mi>A</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>w</mi><mi>P</mi></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>, a binary classification model intended for precipitation nowcasting based on weather radar reflectivity prediction. Specifically, <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mi>A</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>w</mi><mi>P</mi></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula> uses two convolutional autoencoders, being trained on radar data collected on both stratiform and convective weather conditions for learning to predict whether the radar reflectivity values will be above or below a certain threshold. <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mi>A</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>w</mi><mi>P</mi></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula> is intended to be a proof of concept that autoencoders are useful in distinguishing between convective and stratiform precipitation. Real radar data provided by the Romanian National Meteorological Administration and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute is used for evaluating the effectiveness of <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mi>A</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>w</mi><mi>P</mi></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>. Results showed that <inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mi>A</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>w</mi><mi>P</mi></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula> surpassed other binary classifiers used in the supervised learning literature in terms of probability of detection and negative predictive value, highlighting its predictive performance.
In this article I examine some of the ways that accounts of jazz in Scandinavia have been focusing on a taxonomy of features most often associated with folk music and the remote geography of the north. I focus on specific musicians and collaborations from Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the second half of the twentieth century, to explore issues of folklorism and landscape, questioning the degree to which perceptions of ‘northerness’ in jazz have been paired with notions of nationalism. I conclude by looking at the extent to which elements of neo-traditionalism were at play in diverse forms of cultural practice in the late twentieth century, examining the inward-looking folklorism often associated with ‘the Nordic tone’.
The 19th-century Norwegian playwright, Henrik Ibsen had an unparalleled, posthumous impact on the development of modern Chinese drama. How is it possible that he could influence the literature of a country so remote in space and so different in its literary traditions? History is a key factor in this story. Early 20th century China was at the threshold of taking radical measures in reforming its society, and she was badly in need of a supporting ideology. Ibsen was a thinker and dramatist who, by means of presenting acute social problems in his plays, deeply influenced the society of his age. He did so in a realistic way and with the help of a clear language, both of which factors extremely appealed to modern Chinese intellectuals. It can be stated that it was to a great extent through Ibsen’s plays, most importantly through Nora, that modern Chinese intellectuals discovered the long-range possibilities lying in the adoption of Western dramatic form, namely, transforming minds. Nora stirred the pond water of Chinese society, and came to symbolize the rebellion of the ‘Free Individual’: something that had no precedent whatsoever in China but what has long been in the air. Modern Chinese playwrights began to imitate Ibsen with great fervour, resulting in the flourishing of the social problem play, featuring brave and modern ‘Chinese Noras’. Although advanced thinkers soon had to realize that the ideas of Ibsen cannot simply be adopted but must first be modified to be able to credibly represent contemporary Chinese social, cultural and moral reality, the ‘Nora-phenomenon’ and Ibsenism played a vital role in setting off the literary and cultural reform in early 20th-century China.
Our study contributes to a limited body of literature and aims to examine the type and frequency of linkages between creative industries and higher education institutions (HEIs). The objective of our study is to investigate the extent to which various types of linkages contribute to enhanced innovative capabilities in creative industries. Based on a qualitative research design and a case study carried out in a peripheral south-western Norwegian county, our empirical analysis shows that HEIs are generally not very relevant partners and that other actors are mainly involved in innovation dynamics. As clarified and discussed in the paper, this finding largely depends on some specific characteristics of HEIs, the form of knowledge primarily employed by creative firms (symbolic knowledge base), and the cultural divergence between the two spheres.
This article challenges a non-political interpretation of Hamsun’s work, by arguing that Hamsun's poetics is characterized by a radical reactionary vitalism.
In this article, I discuss Knut Hamsun’s last book On Overgrown Paths [På gjengrodde Stier] (1949) from the perspective of a pathography, meaning an autobiography that focuses on a person’s illness and its consequences. Due to his actions during WWII, Hamsun was subjected to a psychiatric examination in 1947 and diagnosed as having permanently impaired mental faculties. Hamsun opposed this diagnosis, and the book both aims at demonstrating his mental ability and depicting his experience of being an unwilling patient. This article looks at how the autobiographical narrator reflects upon his experiences as a patient, and how the text contains a certain critique of the clinic and the patient-doctor relationship. It sheds light on how the motif of travel and quest is important for the narrator’s experience of being ill, and it concludes with a brief discussion of how medicine and literature are disciplines that may benefit from an interdisciplinary approach to studying both fiction and autobiographical literature.
The intellectual atmosphere of Russian fin de siècle was characterized by a strong fascination for Norway, its nature, its culture and its literature. A good example is Henrik Ibsen who was a significant source of inspiration for Russian dramatists, writers and poets. The Russian symbolists in particular saw Ibsen as a tutelary spirit and not least the “younger” symbolist Andrey Bely regarded his works and thoughts as a prefiguration and a foreshadowing of his own. Ibsen was important to Bely through all his various stages of intellectual, artistic and spiritual seeking and in accordance with Bely’s highly interpretative, hermeneutical approach to the world, in which everything he experienced was transformed to confirm his own symbolist Weltanschauung, also Ibsen was transformed in much the same manner. And the very intriguing way in which Bely rewrites the Norwegian playwright into his own writings will be the main topic of this article, illustrating how the Russian symbolist refigures the Norwegian dramatist to make him fit into his own continuous search for new and meaningful perspectives and positions. Moreover and even still more remarkable, this search convincingly demonstrates how the Ibsenian legacy throughout the many different phases of Bely’s creative development keeps it crucial place within Bely’s life cycle, thereby establishing a most interesting thread in the complex web of Ibsen’s Wirkungsgeschichte.
Literature (General), Slavic languages. Baltic languages. Albanian languages
Kristin Taraldsen, Malcolm H. Granat, Jorunn L. Helbostad
Hip fractures in older persons are associated with both low levels of daily physical activity and loss of outdoor mobility. The aim was to investigate if accelerometer-based measures of physical behaviour can be used to determine if people undertake outdoor walking and to provide reference values for physical behaviour outcomes related to outdoor mobility. Older persons (n=245), ≥70 years, one year after hip fracture, participated. Six objective measures of physical behaviour collected by an activity monitor were compared with self-reported outdoor mobility assessed with the Nottingham Extended ADL scale. All measures of time and length in upright periods were significantly lower in participants who reported not walking outdoors (p<0.001). A set of cut-off points for the different physical behaviour variables was generated. Maximum length of upright events discriminated best between groups, with 31 minutes as a threshold to determine if a person is more likely to report that they walk outdoors (sensitivity: 0.805, specificity: 0.704, and AUC: 0.871) or 41 minutes or more to determine if a person is more likely to report outdoor walking on their own (AUC: 0.891). Physical behaviour variables from activity monitoring can provide information about patterns of physical behaviour related to outdoor activity performance.
The article discusses representations of time and space in the frescoes in the garden room of Empress Livia's villa at Prima Porta, near Rome. The frescoes, dated to ca 30–20 B.C., decorates an underground chamber in a vast villa-complex and show an "impossible garden" in that its vegetation is simultaneously and continuously flowering, without any realistic connection to time. Through analysis of the vegetation's spatial organization, the representation of birds and the chamber's placement in the villa-complex, the article examines the significance of the garden, be it real or imaginary, as an arena for instilling and expressing Roman civic values and duties. It addresses the potential relevance of the villa's imperial connection and questions whether the frescoes are to be read as expressions of "art of the state" or "state of the art".
It is my experience that theatre artists who work with an Ibsen text agree that he understands, indeed feeds, the actor’s art; as if he ‘imagines’ how an actor will exploit the language on the page, its rhythm, sound and pace, so as to make it come alive on stage. I believe it is important as the first priority to translate the work with actors’ voices in mind. To write dialogue for a particular actor, or cast, means the language becomes idiosyncratic, characterising and thereby universal, something which is amply demonstrated by the history of playwriting.
This article discusses how the making of theatre is “an encounter between actor and text in a physical environment that illuminates the world of the play” (Nick Enright). Every moment on stage is manipulated by the text. But if a translator fails to recreate the original’s world of conflicting and juxtaposed signals, the theatre artists will be unable to realise them on stage. As a translator and dramaturg I react to how the performers on the floor in front of me treat the text, as well as to the text I hold in my hand. When all the elements of text and performance come together in the rehearsal room, the plays become anchored in a specificity whose ultimate result is universality. But the article also argues that mistranslations stop this from happening.
Interregnum is the process that takes place between the original play and the version in another “dress”. It involves a fine balancing act of creating a theatrical language for the target culture, while keeping the fundamental nature of the original.
Traduções literárias de línguas/culturas periféricas tendem a ser esporádicas e, como tais, tornam-se mais propensas a buscar integrar o polissistema literário meta, abandonando os elos entre a obra original e seu polissistema fonte. Para atingir essa integração a abordagem assimilativa (ou domesticadora, no sentido de Venuti, 1998) mostra-se quase inevitável. O presente ensaio, tomando como exemplo as traduções efetivas e potenciais de obras da literatura norueguesa para o português brasileiro, sustenta que seria possível adotar uma abordagem diversa, que buscasse reproduzir - ainda que parcialmente - o polissistema fonte (ou fragmentos relevantes desse). Esta abordagem exigirá mais do que um esforço tradutório pontual: terá de ser mobilizada uma estratégia intercultural, planejando a tradução paulatina de uma multiplicidade de obras relevantes - e, destarte, estabelecer uma imitatio do polissistema fonte nos espaços de recepção brasileiros.<br>Literary translations from peripheral languages/cultures tend to be sporadic, and, as such, are more likely to attempt to become a part of the target literary polysystem, and to abandon the links between the original work and its source polysystem. In order to achieve this, the assimilative (or domesticating, as Venuti (1998) would have it) approach will close to inevitable. This essay, taking as an example the actual and potential translations of works of Norwegian literature into Brazilian Portuguese, claims that a different approach could be adopted, seeking to reproduce - albeit partially - the source polysystem (or relevant fragments thereof). This approach will require more than an effective translation effort: an intercultural strategy will be involved, planning over time the translation of a multiplicity of significant works - and thus set up an imitatio of the source polysystem in the Brazilian spaces of reception.
The article focuses on the topic of identity crises in the novels of German author Siegfried Lenz. He presents no solution of the identity problem, which is reflected both in a private and in a historical dimension, but has a distinct preference for nostalgic ways of life.
The writing of historical polar exploration in the English-speaking academy has undergone a substantial shift in the past twenty years, to the point where it may be safe to declare that the once-dominant triumphal and hagiographical style, inherited from the nineteenth century, has breathed its last. The explorer as depicted in this tradition has become a figure of fun in current discourse, easily recognizable in the contours of caricature. Sherrill Grace, for example, presents for our inspection "courageous men battling a dangerous, hostile, female terra incognita to prove their masculinity and the superior force of their technology" whose fate is to "die nobly in struggle, or to map, claim, name, and control unstructured space, even if only on paper." It is all too simple to dismiss these aims in an era with less palpable sympathy for them. Instead, many current writers have chosen the more difficult approach of grounding these explorers in appropriate political, social, and cultural contexts, and subsequently uncovering the rationale behind their beliefs and practices.