Itämerensuomalaisten kielten keskinäisen ymmärrettävyyden tutkimus on osoittanut, että kielten äidinkieliset puhujat luottavat itämerensuomalaisten kielten samankaltaisuuteen pyrkiessään ymmärtämään sukukieltä. Tämä artikkeli käsittelee tutkimusta, joka tuo uusia näkökulmia aiheen tarkasteluun ja paneutuu eritoten aineiston keräämiseksi suunniteltuun kielikokeeseen. Se täydentää tutkimusaiheen aikaisempia menetelmiä, ja kokeen tavoitteet, suunnittelu, ominaisuudet ja kulku kuvataan tarkoin. Valotan koetekstin laadintaa ja koesanojen valintaa sekä esittelen järjestelmäni vastausten pisteyttämiseksi. Kuvaan pilottikokeiden kulun ja esittelen niiden tulokset. Tuloksista voidaan havaita, että koe soveltuu tutkimuskysymyksiini vastaamiseen. Koetulokset myös erosivat odotetusti, sillä eri taustamuuttujat, kuten kielitaito, ennakoivat erilaisia koetuloksia. Näitä havaintoja voidaan pitää merkkeinä siitä, että koe on saavuttanut sille asetetut tavoitteet. "Planning and novelty values of a test measuring mutual intelligibility of Baltic Finnic languages." Mutual intelligibility of Baltic Finnic languages can be measured and observed in multiple ways. This article describes the development of a new kind of language test designed for informants whose mother tongue is Finnish or Estonian. The participating Finns’ language proficiency level in Estonian was 0, A or B, and Estonians’ level in Finnish was 0, A or B. Compared to previous test types, ways to measure mutual intelligibility, and measuring differences between cognates this test offers new features. The process of test word selection, test design, and scoring method are described phase by phase. The selection of cognates was conducted with meticulous care, as the test aimed to provide diverse data for analysis. One of the most important purposes of the test was to observe and analyse how these two groups of people understood cognates from each other’s language in different contexts. First, the cognates were translated one at a time, then as a part of sentences, and ultimately as a part of short text. Additionally, informants translated Vepsian and Livonian languages. Another objective in developing this test was to collect data for analysing whether Finns’ language skills in Estonian aided their understanding of Livonian and whether Estonians’ language skills in Finnish helped them to understand Vepsian. Hence, the informants not only translated cognates shared by all these languages but also those with specific etymological connections. For instance, they considered cognates like ‘parta’ and ‘bard’ (both meaning ‘beard’) – which have a common etymology only in Finnish and Vepsian – as well as ‘habe’ and ‘abbõnd’ (also meaning ‘beard’) – which share a common etymology exclusively between Estonian and Livonian.
Furthermore, this type of test provides an opportunity to analyse how symmetric or asymmetric the level of understanding between Finnish and Estonian is. Therefore, the cognates in the test include morphologically rich word forms. The piloting of the test and its results have also been described in this article, alongside the development process of the test’s scoring system. The test’s scoring method is thoroughly explained, as it is nuanced rather than binary. The pilot’s results substantiate that the development, structure and scoring method of the test were successful. The test fulfills its purpose and objectives as it is capable of highlighting differences among informants with varying backgrounds, such as different mother tongues and language proficiency levels.
Artikkel käsitleb küsimusi ja vastuseid kaht liiki suhtluses. Analüüsitav materjal on ühelt poolt Riigikogus ühe seaduseelnõu menetluse kolme istungi stenogrammid ja teiselt poolt neli reisibüroos salvestatud dialoogi. Mõlemas materjalis on märgendatud dialoogiaktid. Riigikogus läbib menetletav seaduseelnõu kolm lugemist. Iga lugemine algab ministri või juhtivkomisjoni esindaja ettekandega, misjärel saavad parlamendiliikmed esitada küsimusi. Nii algab dialoog, kus üheks osalejaks (küsijaks) on vaheldumisi üks või teine parlamendiliige, teiseks osalejaks (vastajaks) aga äsjane ettekandja. Reisibüroos on dialoogis osalejateks klient, kes küsib infot planeeritava reisi kohta, ning ametnik, kes annab talle seda infot. Artiklis keskendutakse küsimuste ja vastuste vormile ja funktsioonidele. Uuringu eesmärk on kaardistada sarnasused ja erinevused Riigikogus ja klienditeeninduses küsimuste esitamisel ja nendele vastamisel. Selgub, et mõlemal juhul on küsimuste põhifunktsiooniks info saamine, mistõttu on sagedasim vastus info andmine. Erinevused tulenevad suhtlussituatsioonide erinevusest.
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Questions and answers in a Parliament as compared with a Travel Agency
The paper compares and analyzes questions asked and answered in the Parliament of Estonia when discussing a bill with those asked and answered in a travel agency when planning a trip. The aim of the study is to discover similarities and differences between the two kinds of dialogues. The empirical material includes verbatim records of three sittings in the Parliament and transcripts of four recordings in a travel agency. Dialogue acts are annotated in the texts by using two typologies – the ISO standard and a special annotation typology developed at the University of Tartu. In the Parliament, questions can be asked by MPs after every report of the representatives of the government. In a travel agency, the dialogue participants are a customer who asks questions about a trip and the agent who answers; the participants do not change during a dialogue. The paper concentrates on the form and functions of the questions and answers. The analysis demonstrates that in both kinds of dialogues, questions are asked mainly for getting information but in some cases also to confirm the presumptions. In the Parliament, both questions and answers are typically verbose, which is not the case in the travel agency.
The aim of the study is to examine whether the CLAWS7 tagger is a suitable tool for tagging the Tartu Corpus of Estonian Learner English (TCELE). Extracts were tagged manually and automatically, and the results were compared to calculate the error rate and reveal the possible causes for tagger errors. The error rate was 4.01%. The tagger expectedly experienced some of the disambiguation problems outlined in the CLAWS7 post-editing guide, yet certain tagger errors were also triggered by learner errors.
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Sõnaliikide märgendamine Tartu inglise õppijakeele korpuses CLAWS7 märgendajaga
Uurimuse eesmärk oli tuvastada, kas CLAWS7 automaatset sõnaliigi märgendajat saab kasutada Tartu inglise õppijakeele korpuse (TCELE) märgendamiseks. TCELE-st juhuslikkuse alusel valitud käsitsi ja automaatselt märgendatud teksti lõike võrreldi omavahel, arvutati automaatse märgendaja veamäär ning analüüsiti märgendamisel tekkinud vigade võimalikke põhjuseid. Automaatse märgendaja veamääraks oli 4,01%. Märgendajal tekkisid ühestusraskused määratlejate ja adverbide, adverbide ja ainsuses olevate noomenite ning adjektiivide ja adverbide märgendamisel. Samuti oli märgendajal raskusi sobiva täpsema märgendi määramisel noomeni ja verbi kategooriates. Nimetatud raskusi mainiti ka CLAWS7 järeltoimetamise juhendis. Lisaks tekkisid märgendajal õppijavigadega seotud raskused. CLAWS7 oluline nõrkus on veel märgendite puudumine relatiivpronoomeni ning samuti sõnade this ja that pronoomenkasutuse jaoks. Vaatamata nimetatud puudustele saab CLAWS7 märgendajat kasutada eestlaste inglise õppijakeele märgendamiseks.
Lolita Ozoliņa, Valts Ernštreits, Kadri Koreinik
et al.
Today the Livonian core area includes 14 coastal villages on the northern Courland peninsula in the northwest of Latvia. Yet, the manifestations of Livonian intangible heritage can be observed in several cultural landscapes as Livonians once inhabited territories along the Gulf of Rīga, extending into modern Estonian lands and the lower course of the Gauja and Daugava Rivers. Despite the indigenous origin of Livonian culture, these manifestations are often marginalised and not immediately visible.
This paper seeks to describe the first comparative findings from the international research project “Re-voicing cultural landscapes: narratives, perspectives, and performances of marginalised intangible cultural heritage”, which brings together researchers from four European universities, incl. the University of Latvia and the University of Tartu.
Kokkuvõte. Lolita Ozoliņa, Valts Ernštreits, Kadri Koreinik, Ieva Vītola: Liivi vaimse kultuuripärandi manifestatsioonid Lätis ja üle piiri Eestis: raamistamas märkmeid välitöödelt. Nüüdsel ajal tuntakse liivi alana Kuramaa 14 rannaküla Loode-Lätis. Ometi leidub liivi vaimse kultuuripärandi märke nii mõnelgi pool mujal – neil kultuurimaastikel, kus piki Liivi lahe vasak ja paremkallast kulges liivlaste asustus, mis ulatus koguni Koiva ja Väina jõe alamjooksule ja üle riigipiiri Eestissegi. Vaatamata liivi kultuuri põlistele juurtele on need märgid aga marginaalseks kahandatud ja sestap silmale peidetud. Artikkel võtab kirjeldada ja võrrelda esmaseid andmeid rahvusvahelisest uurimisprojektist “Kultuurimaastike hääle taasleidmine: marginaliseeritud vaimse kultuuripärandi narratiivid, väljavaated ja toimimine”, mis toob kokku teadlasi neljast Euroopa ülikoolist, sh Läti ja Tartu ülikoolist.
Kubbõvõttõks. Lolita Ozoliņa, Valts Ernštreits, Kadri Koreinik, Ieva Vītola: Līvõd vaimliz kultūr pierāndõks manifestātsijd Lețmōl ja iļ rubīž Ēstimōl: tǟdõlpanmizt nurmtīestõ. Paldīņiz āigal amā jemīņ neku līvõd jeltõbkūož ātõ tundtõb 14 Kurmō rāndakillõ – Līvõd rānda. Sīegid līvõd vaimliz kultūr pierāndõks um liedtõb ka mūsõ – nēši kultūrmōnistis, kus mȯlmõd pūol Piškīzt mīerda vaņši aigši jelīztõ līvlizt, ja mis ulātizt Koiva ja Vēna jougūd sōņ ja iļ rubīž ka Ēstimōlõ. Vaņtlõmõt līvõ kultūr muinizt jūrd pǟl, se pierāndõks ni um sōnd jo pientizõks ja sīestõ ka siļmšti urgtõd. Kēra nīžõb ja ītlõb ežmiži tuņšlimiztieutidi rovvõdvailizõs tuņšlimizprojekts “Kultūrmōnistõd īel ūd pǟl lieudimi: margināliz vaimliz kultūr pierāndõks naratīvõd, tulbizt võimizt ja pīlimi”, mis tūob īdõkubbõ tuņšlijiži nēļast Eirōp iļīzskūolst, nänt siegās ka Tartu ja Lețmō Iļīzskūolst.
As a variant of alternative spirituality derived from postmodern fluidity and fragmentation of large narratives, Nordic Heathenry has gone through a revival for the past decades. Due to the common ground of potentially völkish/ethnicist views shared by far-right milieus, it has been confronted with the risk of the extremist framework dominating the reception of Norse symbols and myths. While many strains of heathenry might present similarities in their neo-romantic nativist revival, some have been attempting to focus on a heritage discourse that can become acceptable and normalized in society, reflecting an open and inclusive attitude. The Asatru Association in Iceland and The Old Way in Sweden, through their public message and stated mission, underline the need for the freedom to reinvent myth and ritual while remaining anchored in the present, thus distancing themselves from other cultural appropriations and proclaiming their own role in society. The very flexible view on myth and ritual constitutes a defining aspect for the identity of these movements.
Greater Romania was created at the end of World War I as a result of both top-down and bottom-up processes that involved all social layers from Transylvania and the Old Kingdom. The present study focuses on a particular category of actors that took part in the Great Union of 1 December 1918, namely Romanian officers from the Austrian army, and on a specific set of sources, i.e. Transylvanian periodicals issued around this date. In order to answer a number of research questions centered on Romanian officers’ contribution to the historical act that took place in Alba Iulia, I used articles that appeared throughout 1918 in four Transylvanian periodicals, namely Biserica și Școala, Drapelul, Transilvania and Unirea. The study’s chief aim is to provide a clear picture of the manner in which Romanian officers from the Austrian army were depicted by the press shortly before and after Transylvania’s union with Romania was proclaimed, as well as of the nature of their participation in the events: as delegates of the National Guards or as agents whose goal was to ensure order during the meeting.
"Using the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives test for the assessment of Estonian children’s narrative skills"
In the Estonian language context, the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (MAIN) has not been used for research purposes. A total of 18 children (9 boys and 9 girls) between the ages of 4 and 8 took part in trial tests: 15 Estonian mother-tongue and 3 Estonian-Russian bilingual mother-tongue children. The article was an analysis of the suitability of the test and an analysis of the test’s preliminary results in assessing Estonian children’s narrative skills.
The preliminary test showed that storytelling is difficult for children. It emerged that when producing a narrative, it was not natural for children to indicate a starting point (giving time or place), but rather storytelling began immediately with a conflict and goal as internal components. Challenges and goals also turned out to be the most common and therefore the simplest content in the children’s narratives.
There was little complexity in the children’s narratives, and most presented individual goals without conflicts or outcomes. Least common was all three macrostructural components (goal-conflict-outcome) in succession in the children’s stories. Stories that achieved higher scores in production were also more complex and these displayed components and sequencing of components that show the cohesion and completeness of the work. Stories that achieved lower scores rather contain individual goals of narrative production, but with conflicts and outcomes to a lesser extent.
In the Estonian children’s narratives, there were few words referring to a person’s inner feelings or reactions. The results showed that Estonian children find it difficult to use emotion words, which is evidenced by their limited use of IST words (including emotion words) as well as their null-rated understanding of the internal reactions and states of individuals.
No connection emerged showing that those that narrate better also understand better. A high comprehension test result shows that the test stimulus, a series of pictures, was understood and the test turned out to be appropriate for the children.
Better narrators generally have a richer vocabulary and children with a richer vocabulary express more internal reactions and conditions of individuals in their stories. By analysing the density of the vocabulary used by the children in their narratives and its relationship with points in the narrative, it became clear that a child’s more varied vocabulary is not connected to better narrative skills.
For further research purposes, this test has significant added value and research focus which provides an opportunity to link narrative production skills with studies of the developmental environment.
Tutkimuksessa kartoitetaan ruotsin kielen vaikutusta 13–15-vuotiaiden kaksikielisten nuorten suomen kieleen luokkahuoneen ulkopuolella nauhoitetuissa arkikielisissä keskusteluissa Haaparannalla (2014–2017) ja Tukholmassa (2015–2016). Artikkelissa pohditaan ruotsin kielen leksikaalista, semanttista ja morfosyntaktista vaikutusta mahdollisena selityksenä suomen standardipuhekielestä poikkeaviin sanavalintoihin ja kielioppirakenteisiin. Tutkimus on sekä kvalitatiivinen että kontrastiivinen. Tutkimustulokset osoittavat, että ruotsin kielen vaikutus näkyy enimmäkseen kaksikielisten nuorten suomen sanastossa. Koodinvaihdon ja lainaamisen ohella puhujat kääntävät ruotsinkielisiä idiomaattisia ilmauksia suomen kieleen. Myös suomen sanojen semanttisen kentän laajeneminen voi olla merkki ruotsin kielen vaikutuksesta. Osaa poikkeavista ilmauksista voi pitää puhekielen normaalivariaationa ja murrekielisinä ilmauksina, osaa taas standardikielen normista poikkeavina muotoina, joita ei voi selittää ruotsin kielen avulla. Kaksikielisten puhujien suomen kielessä esiintyy vain vähän esimerkkejä ruotsin morfosyntaktisesta vaikutuksesta. Puhujat pitävät erillään ruotsin ja suomen sanojen ääntämisen, eikä ruotsin kielen fonologista vaikutusta suomen kieleen ole juuri havaittavissa.
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"Linguistic influence of Swedish on Finnish in informal conversations among bilingual adolescents in Haparanda and in Stockholm"
The focus of this paper is on Swedish influence on bilingual adolescents’ Finnish in informal group and pair conversations in Haparanda and Stockholm. The theoretical framework is found in the field of language contact research, especially earlier cross-linguistic influence studies. The primary data was video- and audio-recorded in 2014–2017 from bilingual adolescents at three junior high schools in Haparanda and the secondary data was collected in 2015–2016 at two Swedish-Finnish junior high schools in Stockholm. All the recordings were made outside lesson times. The analysis of the collected conversation data is qualitative and contrastive.
"Some topics in translation and interpreting research"
The article describes some findings of a pilot study in the field of translation and interpreting studies. 4 translators and 5 interpreters translated the same source text from English into Estonian. Their translation process was recorded either as an audio recording (for interpreters) or screen recording (for translators) and all texts were collected. As interpreting research is so far basically missing in Estonia and translation process research is also in the beginning stages, the study is to a large extent exploratory and tentative. We looked into the use of pronouns, of which only demonstrative pronouns showed a difference in usage that could not be explained by the nature of the task. We also analysed whether there was any use of literal translation as a strategy, also to understand how the translator’s and interpreter’s mind works to find solutions for certain translation problems. The translation of cultural items being the most difficult part in the translation task used, we studied the problem-solving strategies and decisions translators and interpreters made. The translation process data was most intensively used to study self-corrections in the translator’s work process. This revealed some interesting patterns in the translator’s working habits, which could definitely be elaborated and researched further.
All in all, we find that it makes a lot of sense to study these two areas of translation together and the best way to encourage it would be compiling a proper (longterm) corpus of product and process data. The advances in such research would be most appreciated in the didactic environment but it would also be an important addition to translation studies and translation tools development.
Artikkelissa tarkastellaan suomea vieraan kielenä opiskelevien teksteissä esiintyviä muodollisia subjekteja. Huomioni kohteena ovat sellaiset suomen kielen lauseet, joiden rakenteessa luonnostaan ei ole subjektia tai joissa on epätyypillinen subjekti mutta joihin oppija on lisännyt subjektin paikalle se-pronominin muodolliseksi subjektiksi. Muodollinen se-subjekti, eräänlainen lisäsubjekti, ei kuitenkaan näihin lauseisiin kuuluisi. Suomen kielessä luonnostaan subjektittomia ovat esimerkiksi erilaiset tilaa ja olosuhteita kuvaavat lauseet ja epäprototyyppisiä subjektitäydennyksiä ovat esimerkiksi infinitiivi- ja lausesubjektit. Tavoitteenani on luoda yleiskuva oppijoiden muodollisen se-subjektin käytöstä, joka ansaitsee huomiota sekä suomen syntaksin että oppijankielen näkökulmasta. Tutkimukseni aineisto on kerätty kansainvälisestä oppijankielen korpuksesta. Muodollisen subjektin lauseista suurin osa on B1–B2-kielitaitotasolla (CEFR) olevien oppijoiden teksteistä, ja aineiston oppijoista suurimman osan äidinkieli on jokin indoeurooppalainen kieli. Aineistossani lisäsubjekteja löytyy etenkin skandinaavisia, germaanisia ja slaavilaisia kieliä äidinkielenään puhuvien teksteistä. Muodolliset subjektit ovat tuttuja monien oppijoiden äidinkielissä, ja suomen kielessä taas on lukuisia erityyppisiä subjektittomia rakenteita. Aiempien havaintojeni ja aineistoni perusteella suomenoppijat voivat lisätä muodollisen subjektin se sellaisissa tapauksissa, joissa lause ei rakenteensa vuoksi saa prototyyppistä subjektia, joka on nominatiivimuotoinen ja sijaitsee predikaatin edellä. Tällöin monikasvoinen ja tuttu se-pronomini voi saada semanttisesti tyhjän subjektielementin tehtävän.
Suomenoppijoiden tuottamat lisäsubjektilliset lauseet kuuluvat seuraaviin suomen kielen lauseryhmiin: subjektittomiin tai e-subjektillisiin erikoislausetyyppeihin ja lauseisiin, joissa subjektitäydennyksenä on infinitiivi tai sivulause. Joissakin konteksteissa muodollisia lisäsubjekteja esiintyy monilla taitotasoilla, kun taas toiset liittyvät selvemmin tiettyyn taitovaiheeseen. Etenkin säätilan ilmauksissa on eniten opintojensa alkupuolella olevien opiskelijoiden lauseita, kun taas lause- ja infinitiivisubjektillisia virkkeitä rakentavat tyypillisesti jo opinnoissaan pidemmällä olevat.
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"Formal subject se from a Finnish learner’s viewpoint"
This article focuses on formal subjects in Finnish as a foreign language learners’ texts. My aim is to study sentences, which in Finnish are subjectless, or have a non-typical subject. Prototypical subject in Finnish is in nominative, agrees with the predicate, and is in preverbal position. In Finnish, however, there are plenty of subjectless constructions and clause types, for example different expressions of weather and state. In Finnish, formal subjects are not part of these constructions. There are also non-typical subjects, such as clausal and infinitival subjects, or partitive subjects in existential clauses. Unlike in many Indoeuropean languages, in standard Finnish, there are no formal subjects (also known as expletives), which are non-referential, “sematically empty”, and formally fulfil the role of subject.
Based on my earlier teaching experiences and this study, learners of Finnish tend to add a formal subject, an additional and unnecessary subject, in clauses which in Finnish actually are naturally subjectless, or have a subject which is not a prototypical nominative subject. Multifunctional, diverse and familiar pronoun se is applied by learners in case they have decided to add an additional subject argument.
My data comes from International Corpus of Learner Finnish (ICLFI). Majority, 61 %, of formal subject clauses in my data are produced by learners on language skill level B1 or B2. My aim is to provide an overview on additional formal se-subject in learners’ written Finnish. Formal subjects are known in many language, whereas in Finnish there is a variety of subjectless constructions. This phenomen is interesting from a point of view of Finnish syntax, and learners’ language.
Ülevaade. See artikkel käsitleb puudega suhtlemist vadja ja vepsa rahvakultuuris. Vaatluse all on kaks juhtu, kus metsas marju-seeni korjav inimene on toonud puule (kuusk; kask) toiduandi ning puud kõnetades palunud temalt head korjesaaki või tervist. Vadja informant on ka metsas mälestanud teadmata surnuid. Lisaks personaalse suhtluspartneri või vahendaja rollile võib puud vaadelda ka laiemas usundilises (kosmogoonilises) ja kombestikulises kontekstis. Need juhud pakuvad huvi kui animistliku maailmavaate kajastused läänemeresoome rahvastel. Ühtlasi kutsuvad nad üles arutlema laiemalt läänemeresoomeliku ontoloogia üle, milles šamanistlik kultuuritüüp hakkas hiljemalt rauaajal asenduma teadjakesksega.
Abstract. Madis Arukask: Animistic communication with trees based on two Finnic examples. The article deals with communication with trees in the Votian and Vepsian folk cultures. Two cases are observed where people picking berries or mushrooms in the forest offered food to trees (a spruce and a birch), asking for berries-mushrooms and/or good health in return. The Votian informant also commemorated missing dead people at the same time. The tree can be seen as a communication partner or mediator. In addition, the communication can be analyzed in a broader cosmogonic or ritual context. These cases reflect the animistic worldview and the ontology of the traditional way of life of Finnic peoples, where a shamanistic type of culture was gradually replaced by a tedai/teadja (“the-one-who-knows”)-centred one, not later than the Iron Age.
Keywords: animism; communication with trees; Finnic folk belief; the-one-who-knows; Vepsian; Votian
Kokkuvõte. Käesolevas artiklis käsitletakse rootsi modaaltegusõna böra kasutust autentsetes tekstides ning erinevaid strateegiaid, mida on eesti keeles selle tegusõna oleviku vormi bör ja lihtminevikuvormi borde tähenduste tõlkimisel kasutatud. Uurimuse empiiriliseks aluseks on tõlkekorpus, mis koosneb rootsikeelsetest originaaltekstidest ning nende eestikeelsetest tõlgetest. Modaaltegusõnade analüüs lähtub van der Auwera ja Plungiani (1998) modaalsuste mudelist, mille põhjal modaalsus jaotatakse episteemiliseks, deontiliseks, mittedeontiliseks ja dünaamiliseks. Uurimuse tulemused näitasid, et kuigi modaaltegusõna böra olevikuvormi bör ja lihtminevikuvormi borde leidus tekstides võrdsel määral, esineb nende kasutuses mitmeid erinevusi. Kui bör’il on siinse korpuse materjalis valdavalt deontiline tähendus, siis borde esineb kõigis modaalkategooriates. Uurimuse tulemuste põhjal võime väita, et bör’i kasutus on kitsam ning ilmutab ka žanrilise spetsialiseerumise märke, kuivõrd seda kasutatakse tihti juhendites. Tõlkevastete analüüsist selgus, et rootsi modaalverbid bör ja borde on tõlgitud valdavalt modaalverbidega pidama, tulema, tohtima, võima, saama. Kõrvalekaldeid modaalsuse edasiandmisel esines vähesel määral, enamasti eitust sisaldavates lausetes, kuid kõige keerukam aspekt tõlkimisel näib olevat bör’i ja borde vahelise kraadierinevuse edasiandmine, mille puhul eesti keeles kasutatakse vaheldumisi indikatiivi ja konditsionaali vormi.
Abstract. Anu Laanemets and Helena Mihkelson: Translating modality – the Swedish modal verb böra and its Estonian translation equivalents. Based on a Swedish-Estonian translation corpus, the current article examines the use of the Swedish modal verb böra (should, ought to), more specifically its present tense form bör and preterite form borde, and the strategies that have been used to translate this modal verb into Estonian. The analysis is based on the semantic map of modality by van der Auwera and Plungian (1998). The results reveal that although the occurrence of bör and borde in the Swedish texts has approximately the same frequency, their usage differs in several respects. Namely, borde covers a broader spectrum of modality, occurring in epistemic, deontic, non-deontic and dynamic usage, whereas bör mostly conveys deontic modality. Moreover, bör shows signs of genre specificity as it can often be found in instructions. The analysis of the Estonian translation equivalents reveals that the most common translation of the Swedish bör/borde is an Estonian modal verb. There are not many cases of changed modality but translators find it hard to convey the subtle difference between bör and borde in the Estonian language as this difference is only a matter of degree. The tendency seems to be that borde is most often translated with Estonian verbs in the conditional mood as the latter could be said to have the same attenuating effect as the Swedish preterite form, while the indicative mood is much more frequently represented among the equivalents of bör. However, this usage is rather unsystematic as a significant proportion of the equivalents of bör is still in the conditional mood.
Keywords: modality; modal verbs; comparative research; translation corpus; translation; Swedish; Estonian
"Multi-dimensional comparison of revisions across proficiency levels in the writing process of learners of L2 Estonian"
Revision is an integral part of the writing process according to John R. Hayes and Linda S. Flower’s (1980; Flower & Hayes 1981; Hayes et al. 1987; Chenoweth & Hayes 2001; Hayes 2012) writing model. The model incorporates the nature of revision, its function and the cognitive processes involved. The writing process can also be analysed according to revision taxonomies created as a methodological tool to assist researchers in their study of revision. Writing process models show the reasons behind revisions, whereas taxonomies reflect the impact of revision on the written text.
he current article presents an overview of writing process revisions according to the writing model and focuses on the revisions made by native Russian-speaking learners of Estonian as a second language (L2) based on a multi-dimensional revision taxonomy (Stevenson et al. 2006) as well as the tax- onomy of Eva Lindgren and Kirk P. H. Sullivan (2006b). While earlier research has focused on comparison of revisions made in first and second/foreign lan- guage writing, the present study aims to describe revisions made in the writing of native Russian-speaking learners of Estonian as an L2, across A2, B1, B2 and C1 proficiency levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).
The Finnic-Permic word for âsaltâ, traditionally reconstructed as *salÉ (*sala) and explained as an Aryan loanword (cf. Skr. salilá- âsalty water, seaâ < PIE *sal- âsaltâ) is reconsidered. First, the Proto-Finnic-Mordvinian form, when based on real material, should be reconstructed as *sÅla and its phonetic discrepancy with the Perm. *sol (< *sal-) does not allow asserting a solid Proto-Finnic-Permic etymology, rather suggesting a trans-Finnic-Permic borrowing after the desintegration of Proto-Finnic-Permic. Second, the form *sÅla can hardly have an Aryan source, and taking into account the very poor preservation of the PIE *sal- in Aryan, the idea of an Aryan origin of this term becomes even more vague. It is suggested that the term for salt was first borrowed into the Proto-Finnic-Mordvinian approximately in the first half or middle of the 2nd mil. BC from the west, from a language of a Proto-Baltic type, where a derivative from the PIE *sal- â *sÅla âsalted substance, something saltyâ may have existed. This could be a language of the representatives of the Battle Axe cultures of Eastern Europe, whose influence spread down to the Middle Volga. As the borrowing of the word for âsaltâ might be connected with the spread of agriculture and cattle breeding in the forest zone of Eastern Europe, some other etymologies are also discussed to illustrate the suggested cultural context of this borrowing.
Käesolev artikkel käsitleb konteksti ja viitamisvahendeid, mis loovad konteksti. Käsitlus põhineb eelkõige kolmel eraldi läbiviidud uurimusel, milles kõigis oli põhitähelepanu algselt suunatud viitamisvahenditele. Vaatleme kontekstualiseerimisvõtteid spontaansetes argivestlustes ja kahes katselises olukorras: katses legoklotsidega, milles üks katsealune ehitab klotsidest maja teise katsealuse juhendamisel, ja pildiseeria põhjal jutustatud narratiivides. Artiklis võrreldakse, mis nendes kolmes kontekstis oli sarnast ja mis erinevat eelkõige vestlustegevuse alguses: tegevuse olemusest märku andmises ja referentide loomises. Kuna üks osa vaadeldavaid narratiive pärineb lastelt, puudutab artikkel mõnevõrra ka erinevate vanuseliste gruppide viitamisstrateegiaid.
Context and reference: everyday conversations, Lego blocks and narratives. The article discusses context and context-creating means of reference. It is mainly based on three separate studies, all of which originally concentrated on referential devices. We examine contextualizing techniques in spontaneous everyday conversations and in two experimental situations: in an experiment with Lego blocks where one of the subjects builds a house using Lego blocks while being instructed by the other subject, and in narratives based on a picture sequence. The article compares the similarities and differences between these three contexts, concentrating particularly on the beginning of the conversational activity: signalling the nature of the activity and creating referents. Since some of the narratives are told by children the article also touches briefly the reference strategies of different age groups.
This paper desires to draw attention to some stereotypes that simplify perception of historical reality, but nevertheless still prevail in historiography. There is a very common statement about the so-called second edition of serfdom (based on manorial-serve economy) that spread all around the Eastern Europe region in the 16th century. This turn in social development is usually explained as determined by internal as well as external factors. If the problem considered is placed under Marxist views, one can distinguish two extreme poles: traditional Marxism and world-system approach. Supporters of traditional Marxism emphasize internal factors while adherents of world-system attitude accentuate external factors. The author argues that the regime of serfdom established in Moldova until 1600 is not consistent with the classic model. In this case, one can talk only about another type of second serfdom that differs from that of Eastern Germany as well as from Central Europe. It would be also a gross simplification to claim that second serfdom phenomenon was caused exclusively by external reasons. Internal causes are not less but probably even more decisive, at least in some cases. As the work of Darius Žiemelis has showed recently, statements of world-system approach toward certain societies are worth of critical reconsideration.
The paper focuses on the processes of language maintenance and shift among the Slovenian community in north-eastern Italy, from both the present and future perspectives, and presents the results of two empirical studies. The first offers a quantitative analysis of the linguistic behaviour of the Slovenian community members, in order to provide information about the level of minority language maintenance or the gradual shift towards Italian. The intergenerational comparison brings into focus some divergences among two differentage groups and indicates the variables that cooperate to establish them.The second study explores the challenges that the Slovenian community must face in order to encourage the use of the minority language among non-Slovenian speakers. Relying on qualitative data obtained by a series of in-depth interviews with representatives of Slovenian political, cultural and economic organizations in Italy, the study aims to identify some possible strategies for the spread and promotion of the Slovenian language among the wider society.
The questions of national prejudices, xenophobia and enemy images have been lately popular issues. The creation of the ”Other” has been evident in racial issues, like in the ideologies of imperialism or anti-Semitism. However, it is important to see the same mentality inside the European political culture itself, because the images often did and still do divide the nations into different categories. This mentality gained even more impetus after the collapse of the empires in 1918 and yet again in the discussion about ”Old Europe” and ”New Europe”. My purpose is to study how Finland saw Eastern Europe and its political systems and national peculiarities between the World Wars. Finland formed an interesting hinge between Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. On the one hand it wanted to emphasize how Western its mental heritage was; on the other, it had to fight off assumptions that it was still ”half-Russian” and behaving in a ”Balkan” manner. In the early 1920s there were also ideas of similar interests in European politics and similarities of the social structure. In the longer run, the Finns saw Eastern Europe as an area which was not ready for democracy, because it lacked the elements of national cohesion and basic people’s education. Argumentation resembles the German one, but was not necessarily decided by it – rather by own experience or Scandinavian and sometimes Hungarian information. For the Finns, Hungary formed some sort of exception of the prejudiced view because it was considered to be a kindred nation, but the experts could see little similarities even between Finland and Hungary.