Hasil untuk "Petroleum refining. Petroleum products"

Dan ZHAO, Yanjuan WANG, Xianliang PAN et al.

To address the issue of high steam consumption in the propane removal tower of the three tower gas fractionation process in refineries, it is proposed to use a high and low pressure dual tower propane removal process instead of the single tower propane removal process in the original process. The process was simulated under steady?state conditions using Unisim Design process simulation software. The steam load of the high?pressure depropanizer and the hot water load of the deethanizer were analyzed, and the main operating parameters were optimized. The results showed that under the operating conditions of n(top C3 production)/n(total feed C3)=0.6, top pressure of 1.81 MPa, feed tray position of the 10th plate, and feed positions of the 114th and 126th plates at the top of the propane removal tower and low?pressure propane removal tower respectively, using the high and low?pressure double tower propane removal process can save 56.12% of steam load compared to the original process, save 49.83% of hot water load in the ethane removal tower compared to before optimization, reduce total energy consumption by 235.4 kW, and save about 339.71 yuan in thermal utility costs per hour.

KANG YILI, SHAO JUNHUA, LIU JIARONG et al.

In order to establish a systematic evaluation of deep tight coal reservoirs and ensure the efficient, economic and safe implementation of moderate in-situ gasification projects in deep tight coal reservoirs, a feasibility evaluation method based on fuzzy analytic hierarchy process was developed. The methodology comprises: (1) the establishment of an evaluation index set of 3 first-level indicators, including resource conditions, reservoir conditions and preservation conditions, and 18 second-level indicators, including parameters such as coal rank, coal rock reservoir thickness, and coal rock reservoir pressure coefficient, along with a graded comment set categorizing outcomes as “feasible”, “basically feasible”, and “infeasible”; (2) the determination of indicator weights through the analytic hierarchy process; (3) the calculation of each indicator’s membership degree using a trapezoidal membership function to construct an evaluation matrix; and (4) the synthesis of the evaluation and weight matrices to ascertain the membership degrees corresponding to “feasible”, “basically feasible”, and “infeasible” for candidate areas, thus determining the feasibility based on the principle of maximum membership degree. The evaluation method was applied to the feasibility evaluation of moderate in-situ gasification for the deep No. 8 tight coal reservoir in the M block of the Ordos Basin. The evaluation results show that the membership degrees of “feasible”, “basically feasible” and “infeasible” for moderate in-situ gasification of No. 8 coal reservoir in the deep part of M block are 0.413, 0.425 and 0.162 respectively, with the maximum being 0.425, thus determining the feasibility as “basically feasible”. The comprehensive quantitative feasibility evaluation method of moderate in-situ gasification of deep tight coal reservoir, which places particular emphasis on the evaluation of preservation conditions, provides scientific guidance for the implementation of moderate in-situ gasification projects in deep tight coal reservoirs.

Ibrahem Yousef, V.P. Morozov

The research objectives are to assess the possibility of using drill cutting analysis to obtain information about the mineralogical and geochemical properties of the reservoir rocks. Drill cutting samples were collected from a vertical well that penetrated the Domanik sediments (Semiluksk Formation) in one of the oil fields in the Volga-Ural petroleum province. Thin sections from drill cuttings were examined using an optical polarizing microscope (Axio Imager A2). X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed using a Brucker D2 Phaser X-ray powder diffractometer. Thermophysical properties were studied using an STA 449 F3 Jupiter instrument. The pyrolytic studies were performed using the Rock-Eval method. Visual inspection showed that the studied sediments are alternations of carbonates and siliceous-carbonate rocks. Thin section examinations revealed that the carbonates are mainly limestone (mudstone and wackestone) and are characterized by a dense texture and up to 30 % organic residues. The siliceous-carbonate rocks are dominated by siliceous mudstones and are characterized by dark colours, layered structure, and an enrichment in organic matter. XRD analyses showed that the carbonate rocks are mainly composed of calcite, dolomite, quartz, feldspar, and mica, which are minor components. The siliceous-carbonate rocks are dominated by quartz, followed by calcite, although they also contain feldspars, mica, dolomite, and pyrite as impurities. According to the simultaneous thermal analysis, the average total hydrocarbon in the carbonate and siliceous-carbonate rocks is 13.6 % (for the core samples) and 11.5 % (for the drill cutting samples). The content of heavy hydrocarbons in the rocks is higher than the content of light hydrocarbons, indicating the immature nature of organic matter. Kerogen is found sporadically in siliceous-carbonate rocks. According to the pyrolytic studies, average S1 is 4.4 mg/g and average S2 is 19.8 mg/g (for the core samples); average S1 is 2.1 mg/g and average S2 is 17.8 mg/g (for the drill cutting samples), which indicated that the studied sediments have very good to excellent generation potential. The average Tmax of 425.7 °C (for the drill cutting samples) and 427.9 °C (for the core samples) indicate immature organic matter that generated only heavy oils. Comparing the results of the analysed drill cutting samples with the results of the analysed core analysis from the same reservoir interval in the neighbouring wells showed a good correlation, which proves that this technique is a valid tool that provides an alternative, cost-effective method to determine the rock's characteristics from drill cuttings.

LUO Shaohui, WANG Rongying, YUE Yong et al.

In the southwestern Tarim Basin, studies on the paleo-uplift and shelf divergence have focused on the sedimentary evolution and sequence filling during the Cambrian period. This research used zircon U-Pb dating and well-seismic technologies. The findings indicate that Cambrian deposits overlay the basin's basement structures, particularly in the Bachu uplift area. The Cambrian sedimentation patterns closely mirror the underlying basement tectonics. Influenced by these tectonics, along with tectonic movements and sea-level changes, four distinct sequences emerged in the Cambrian: the Yuertusi to Xiaoerbulake formations, the Wusonggeer to Shayilike formations, the Awatage Formation, and the Lower Qiulitage Formation. Additionally, seven sedimentary facies and ten depositional sub-facies were identified. From the first to the third Cambrian sequence, spanning the early to middle Cambrian, the area transitioned from a platform to a gentle slope, then to a steeper slope and finally to a deep shelf. This progression indicates a retreat towards the sea, fostering the development of Cambrian source rocks. In the late Cambrian, during the fourth sequence, the southwestern Tarim Basin transformed into a restricted platform. This period marked the establishment of the sedimentary framework in the Tarim Basin, with distinct eastern basin and western platform regions.

ZHENG Lingli, ZHU Bingqian, ZHANG Yuhao, LI Xiaobo, PENG Jiaming, XIAO Wenlian

Waterflooding characteristic curves are widely used in analyzing oilfield production dynamics. Most existing waterflooding characteristic curves are derived from statistical analyses of production data from sandstone reservoirs, commonly categorized into four types: Type A, Type B, Type C, and Type D. To assess the applicability of these curve types to fractured-cavity carbonate reservoirs, the Tahe fractured-cavity carbonate reservoir was selected as a case study. By analyzing reservoir fracture-cavity structures and oil-water production data, the Type A waterflooding curve was identified as more suitable for the Tahe reservoir. The study of 255 wells with long-term production data revealed six water cut increase patterns and four waterflooding characteristic curve types. Wells controlled by single cavities exhibited single-straight-line waterflooding characteristic curves and slow water cut increase patterns. Wells controlled by dual cavities displayed double-straight-line waterflooding characteristic curves, with water cut increase patterns categorized as slow rise, rapid rise, or fluctuating. For wells affected by water injection in dual-cavity structures, triple-straight-line waterflooding characteristic curves were observed, with water cut increase patterns featuring rapid rise and catastrophic flooding. Wells located in multi-cavity, complex fracture-cavity structures demonstrated irregular waterflooding characteristic curves, with water cut patterns including slow rise, rapid rise, fluctuating, and catastrophic flooding. A comparison with waterflooding characteristic curves of sandstone reservoirs clarified the applicability conditions for fractured-cavity carbonate reservoirs: adherence to the stable waterflooding principle（i.e., the straight-line principle） and the absence of a fixed water cut threshold. This study provides a foundation for predicting production dynamics in fractured-cavity carbonate reservoirs.

YIN Shuai, TIAN Tao, LI Junlu et al.

Fault-fracture bodies are developed in the southwestern margin of Ordos Basin， and thus， the study on the controlling effect of fracture bodies on sweet spot distribution of Yanchang Formation reservoirs needs to be deepened. In this paper， based on the extensive seismic and logging interpretation results， the characteristics of fault-fracture bodies are described from the point of view of their evolution mechanism， and then the controlling effect of fault-fracture bodies on oil and gas is systematically discussed. The results show that vertical strike-slip faults are developed in the southwest margin of Ordos Basin， with Y-shaped， flower-like， and negative flower-like structures. The faults usually pass through the bottom of Chang 7 Member， the bottom of Yan’an Formation， the bottom of the Cretaceous series， and the basement. Some of the faults retain the early reverse fault properties， indicating that the late inversion degree is not complete. The main fault has different shapes and migrations in different parts， and the section shows the cyclic transformation of tension-torsion and compression-torsion properties. On the plane， different types of fracture combinations appear alternately. The development model of strike-slip faults is established， and the strike-slip faults have typical characteristics of “multi-stage activity and inherited development”. Chang 8 Member mainly develops vertical fractures and horizontal bedding fractures. The development frequency of horizontal bedding fractures is 62.5%， while that of vertical fractures is 37.5%. The oil level of vertical fractures is relatively higher. Fractures are mainly developed in fine sandstone in distributary channels. When the distance from the main fault is greater than 1.25-1.5 km， the degree of fracture development decreases sharply， showing a fault-fracture body boundary. In addition， fractures are relatively developed in the single sand body within 6 m from the main fault. When the thickness of the single sand body exceeds 6 m， the degree of fracture development decreases sharply. The study shows that the index system based on sedimentation （foundation）， structure （dominant）， and fracture （effective） can effectively predict the favorable zones of Chang 8 fault-fracture body reservoir.

Ailin JIA, Gang CHENG, Weiyan CHEN et al.

As a kind of clean energy which creates little carbon dioxide, natural gas will play a key role in the process of achieving “Peak Carbon Dioxide Emission” and “Carbon Neutrality”. The Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning System (LEAP) model was improved by using new parameters including comprehensive energy efficiency and terminal effective energy consumption. The Back Propagation (BP) Neural Network—LEAP model was proposed to predict key data such as total primary energy consumption, energy mix, carbon emissions from energy consumption, and natural gas consumption in China. Moreover, natural gas production in China was forecasted by the production composition method. Finally, based on the forecast results of natural gas supply and demand, suggestions were put forward on the development of China's natural gas industry under the background of “Dual Carbon Targets”. The research results indicate that under the background of carbon peak and carbon neutrality, China's primary energy consumption will peak (59.4×108 tce) around 2035, carbon emissions from energy consumption will peak (103.4×108 t) by 2025, and natural gas consumption will peak (6100×108 m3) around 2040, of which the largest increase will be contributed by the power sector and industrial sector. China's peak natural gas production is about (2800–3400)×108 m3, including (2100–2300)×108 m3 conventional gas (including tight gas), (600–1050)×108 m3 shale gas, and (150–220)×108 m3 coalbed methane. Under the background of carbon peak and carbon neutrality, the natural gas consumption and production of China will further increase, showing a great potential of the natural gas industry.

J. Eimontas, N. Striūgas, M. Abdelnaby et al.

Recently, the pyrolysis process has been adapted as a sustainable strategy to convert metallized food packaging plastics waste (MFPW) into energy products (paraffin wax, biogas, and carbon black particles) and to recover aluminum. Usually, catalysts are used in pyrolysis treatment to refine pyrolysis products and to increase their yield. In order to study the effect of a catalyst on the formulated volatile products, this work aims to study the pyrolysis behavior of MFPW in presence of catalyst, using TG-FTIR-GC–MS system. The pyrolysis experiments were conducted with ZSM-5 Zeolite catalyst with different concentrations (10, 30, and 50 wt.%) at different heating rates (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 °C/min). In addition, TG-FTIR system and GC-MS unit were used to observe and analyze the thermal and chemical degradation of the obtained volatile compounds at maximum decomposition peaks. In addition, the kinetic results of catalytic pyrolysis of ZSM-5/MFPW samples matched when model-free methods, a distributed activation energy model (DAEM), and an independent parallel reaction kinetic model (IPR) were used. The TGA-DTG results showed that addition of a catalyst did not have a significant effect on the features of the TGA-DTG curves with similar weight loss of 87–90 wt.% (without taking the weight of the catalyst into account). Meanwhile, FTIR results manifested strong presence of methane and high-intensity functional group of carboxylic acid residues, especially at high concentration of ZSM-5 and high heating rates. Likewise, GC-MS measurements showed that Benzene, Toluene, Hexane, p-Xylene, etc. compounds (main flammable liquid compounds in petroleum oil) generated catalysts exceeding 50%. Finally, pyrolysis kinetics showed that the whole activation energies of catalytic pyrolysis process of MFPW were estimated at 289 kJ/mol and 110, 350, and 174 kJ/mol for ZSM-5/MFPW samples (10, 30, and 50 wt.%, respectively), whereas DAEM and IPR approaches succeeded to simulate TGA and DTG profiles with deviations below <1.

W. Xiao, X. Yao, Fuyang Zhang

Oily sludge is a hazardous waste containing emulsified petroleum hydrocarbons, water, heavy metals, and solid particles. The objective of this work is to employ solidification/stabilization (S/S) techniques to utilize oily sludge as a roadbed material with ordinary Portland cement (OPC), fly ash (FA), and silica fume (SF) as binders and phosphogypsum (PG) as a stabilizer. The efficacy of the S/S process is assessed mainly through an unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test and a toxicity leaching test. Road performance, including water stability, freeze-thaw resistance, and volume stability, is also tested on the solidified samples. The mineralogical compositions, microstructures, and pore structure are characterized through X-ray diffractometry (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). The results show that the addition of 20% binders (OPC : FA : SF = 1 : 0.7 : 0.8) in combination with phosphogypsum to the oily sludge not only increases the 28-day compressive strength of the solidified samples and remarkably decreases the release of heavy metals but also refines the pore structure and compacts the microstructure. The solidified body had sufficient strength and good water stability performance, freeze-thaw resistance, and volumetric stability. This solidification/stabilization (S/S) process, which combines oily sludge treatment and phosphogypsum resource utilization, significantly enhances environmental protection and renders the solidified product economically profitable.

冯定, 刘统亮, 王健刚 et al.

With the development of unconventional oil and gas resources, especially the exploitation of ultra-deep, high-temperature and high-pressure formation resources, as well as the continuous advancement of drill bit technology, turbodrills have been widely promoted because of their high speed, high temperature resistance and low vibration characteristics. And the penetrate rate increase performance is significant. The latest technological achievements of turbodrill are introduced. The key technologies of turbodrill tools from French Neyrfor Company, Russian VNIIBT-Drilling Tools Company and American Halliburton Sperry Company are presented. The advances in foreign turbodrill technology are summarized from the aspects as follows: the development characteristics of turbodrill tools, the innovative design and basic parameters of different types of turbodrills, the research and development of the reducer turbodrill, the turbodrill compound drilling technology and typical application cases of foreign turbodrills. Finally, the development trend of turbodrill technology is pointed out. Combined with the development direction of our country's oil and gas engineering, suggestions are made for the selection and key research and development directions of domestic turbodrills.

Chris Adesola Samakinde, Jan Marinus Van Bever Donker, Ray Durrheim et al.

Abstract The Barremian-Cenozoic depositional sequences in the northern Orange Basin, SW, South Africa, were investigated using the principles of seismic stratigraphy to understand the interplay of tectonics and sedimentary processes in the distribution of potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. A seismic stratigraphic workflow (seismic sequence, seismic facies and lithofacies analysis) was completed by utilising three seismic lines (L1, L2 and L3) tied to Wireline data (gamma, checkshots and sonic) in two exploration wells (A1 and A2). Seven depositional sequences were mapped followed by the creation of lithofacies log interpreted from the gamma-ray log (GR) by setting maximum GR value at 60 API for Sandstone, 60–100 API for Siltstone and above 100 API for Shale. Six seismic facies units are recognised based on internal geometry and configurations of the seismic reflectors; Tangential-Oblique (SF1), Hummocky (SF2), Wavy-Parallel (SF3), Chaotic (SF4), Sub-parallel/parallel (SF5) and Divergent (SF6). SF4 is dominant within the Barremian-Aptian sequence and expressed in an incised valley fill, suggesting mass transport deposition accompanied by strong hydrodynamic conditions. Evidence of sedimentary basins progradation is seen within the Late-Albian-Turonian sequences, because of the occurrences of SF2, SF6 and SF 4 facies. SF5 facies is prominent in the Maastrichtian/Campanian sequence, indicating that the deposition of sediments may have been accompanied by uniform margin subsidence after the Late-Cretaceous uplift of the Africa margin. The occurrence of SF1 and SF4 facies within the Cenozoic sequence indicates terrigenous pro-deltaic deposits and mass transport deposits, respectively. Further results from seismic-lithofacies modelling reveal that sand deposits of Barremian-Aptian (SF4 facies unit) and Albian sequences (SF2 and SF6 facies units) are potential stratigraphic reservoirs in this part of the basin.

Ong Siong Guan, Raoof Gholami, Arshad Raza et al.

There have been many attempts to improve the filtration control of water based muds under High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) condition using a cost effective approach. Nano particles are perhaps the best option considering their successful applications reported in many studies. However, they are often expensive and pose unfavourably changes on the rheology of the muds. In this paper, an attempt was made to show the application of Nano Glass Flakes (NGFs) as a cheap but effective nano particle to control the filtration of water based muds under HPHT conditions. Performing a series of rheology, filtration and conductivity tests on the mud samples with unmodified NGFs revealed that this nano particle increases the mud rheology, yield point and gel strength of the mud with a slight impact on the filtration loss. However, by modifying the surface charges of NGFs with a cationic surfactant, filtration loss was significantly reduced without any severe impacts on the mud rheology. Considering the conductivity of the mud which increases by adding the modified NGF, this nano particle might be a good choice to improve the overall performance of water based muds under HPHT conditions. Keywords: Nano glass flakes, Filtration loss, Rheology, HPHT, Dispersion

Sina Lohrasb, Radzuan Junin

Acidizing treatment is considered as a significant process in the oil well stimulations to form wormholes in carbonate formation in order to enhance the reservoir fluid production. Obtaining the number of pore volumes to breakthrough is an important objective in matrix acidizing, for it contributes to determining the wormhole characteristics such as type, shape, and size. Finding this number in experimental works requires a considerable amount of time, energy and cost. Therefore, this study aimed to establish an analytical method in which a reasonable result is achieved for the number of pore volumes to breakthrough. This purpose is accomplished by solely implementing acid and formation properties without performing any experimental works. The process of wormhole creation is done through developing a numerical model by utilizing the conservation of mass law method in which the carbonate core is considered as a closed system and the overall mass in the system as constant during the acid injection process. Furthermore, a constant number is added to the mathematical part of the model in order to eliminate the dimensionless Damköhler number which is supposed to be calculated experimentally. The results of the numerical procedure of the model are further compared to four other experimental works, which led to calculating the average accuracy of this model that is shown to be 95.98%. This study puts forward a comprehensive numerical model to estimate the number of pore volumes to breakthrough with an acceptable accuracy rate merely through implementing known acid and core properties.

G. Verheyen, T. Ooms, L. Vogels et al.

S. Ng, N. Heshka, Ying Zheng et al.

Abstract Coprocessing of bitumen-derived feeds and biomass through a fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) route has the potential to assist in the reduction of fuel and petroleum product carbon footprints while meeting government regulatory requirements on renewable transportation fuels. This approach is desirable because green house gas (GHG) emissions for producing renewable biofuels are significantly lower than those for fossil fuels, and coprocessing can be executed using existing refining infrastructure to save capital cost. The present study investigates the specific FCC performances of pure heavy gas oil (HGO) derived from oil sands synthetic crude, and a mixture of 15 v% canola oil in HGO using a commercial equilibrium catalyst under typical FCC conditions. Cracking experiments were performed using a bench-scale Advanced Cracking Evaluation (ACE) unit at fixed weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) of 8 h−1, 490–530 °C, and catalyst/oil ratios of 4–12 g/g. This work focuses on some cracking phenomena resulting from the presence of oxygen in the blend—a lower heat requirement for cracking due to the exothermic water formation, which also entails lower hydrogen yield at a given severity. The distribution of feed oxygen in gaseous and liquid products, the mitigation in GHG emissions, and the technological and economical advantages of the coprocessing option are also discussed.

Mortadha Alsaba, Abdullah Al Marshad, Ahmed Abbas et al.

Abstract While drilling through shale formations, shale hydration, including shale swelling and dispersion, is frequently reported as the main wellbore instability problems, particularly when conventional drilling fluids (water-based) are used. These problems have many adverse effects on the drilling operations resulting in non-productive time. Nanoparticles have been recently introduced as a unique alternative to improve the performance of water-based drilling fluids for shale applications. This paper presents an experimental evaluation to investigate the effectiveness of an inhibitive nano-water-based drilling fluid in reducing the swelling of Zubair shale formation. Well-preserved core samples, which were retrieved from Zubair formation, were characterized using X-ray diffraction, and X-ray fluoresces to quantify the amount of the swelling minerals. Scanning electron microscopy was used to identify the existence of microfractures within the samples. Three different nano-based drilling fluids containing titanium dioxide (TiO2), copper oxide (CuO), and magnesium oxide (MgO) at two different concentrations (0.5% and 1.5% by vol) were evaluated through a set of tests to assess the shale reactivity in the presence of these nano-based fluids. In addition, the effect of these nanoparticles on the rheological and filtration properties was studied. The results showed that the shale samples contain 41.26% silicon dioxide (SiO2) and 22.73% aluminum oxide (Al2O3), indicating the presence of smectite and illite. Based on the reactivity tests, fluids containing CuO at 1.5% by vol outperformed the other fluids in terms of reducing the reactivity, where the expansion rate was reduced by 82.7% compared to the reference sample submerged in fresh water. In addition, the addition of nanoparticles resulted in reducing the plastic viscosity, increasing both the yield point and gel strength, and reducing the fluid loss under low-pressure low-temperature conditions.

Yao Zhiming, Yi Xianzhong, Zhou Yuanhua et al.

In the mechanical property study of the pump head of fracturing pump, there are few researches on the stress change of pump heads with different plunger sizes under different working conditions. In view of this, using ANSYS Workbench software, the mechanical properties of four different types of pump heads of the CDJY2500 five-cylinder fracturing pump under various internal pressure loads are numerically analyzed.The analysis results show that the maximum stress and strain of the pump head under discharge condition are always greater than that under the suction condition. Under the rated maximum pressure load of 140 MPa, the maximum stress of the pump head body is 788.76 MPa, which is less than the yield strength of the material.Under different pump strokes, with respect to the ø95.3 mm plunger, the average maximum stress value of the pump heads is reduced by 15.6%, 42.4%, and 52.1%, respectively. The average values of the maximum total deformation are reduced by 12.9%, 34.7%, and 62.7%, respectively. Under the pump strokes of 115~200 min^-1, the maximum stress and maximum total deformation of the pump head decrease rapidly with the pump stroke. Under the pump stroke of 200~330 min^-1, the maximum stress and maximum total deformation of the pump head slowly decrease with the pump stroke. The research results could provide basic data for structural optimization and improvement of the pump head.

Asad Ali Narejo, Abdul Majeed Shar, Noor Fatima et al.

Abstract We have studied geochemical characteristics, mineralogy and origin of the manganese deposits in Bela ophiolitic complex. Geochemical investigation was conducted in order to discuss the elemental correlations and to infer the probable origin of manganese deposits in Bela ophiolites. Ore microscopy was conducted to identify different manganese minerals and their paragenesis. Psilomelane and braunite were found to be the major ore minerals. Mineral paragenesis sequence as observed was braunite forming first. Psilomelane formed in later stages because it has been found that psilomelane is altering the braunite. Magnetite was observed as a secondary mineral as vein filling and cutting through both the braunite and psilomelane, therefore, younger than the psilomelane and braunite. The gangue minerals observed in the studied samples were quartz, cryptocrystalline silica and calcite. The correlations among different major and trace elements showed diversity of relations. MnO showed negative correlation with Fe2O3 (− 0.73), Si2O (− 0.27), positive correlation with Al2O3 (0.54), TiO2 (0.36), MgO (0.22), Pb (0.23), Ni (0.07), Cr (0.12), and no correlation was established with Zn, Cu, Co. Binary diagram of Si versus Al and ternary discrimination diagrams of Fe–(Ni + Co + Cu) × 10–Mn and Ni–Zn–Co showed hydrothermal-diagenetic-type deposits. Furthermore, the present study suggests that the enriched manganiferous fluid during its upward movement within the Tethys oceanic crust near spreading center started precipitating Mn along with Fe on the sea floor. Later on, these manganese minerals were obducted on land between Indian plate and Helmond block of Eurasian plate in existing position accompanying pillow basalt and pelagic sediments.

Olivier Lançon, B. Hascakir

The oil and gas industry has often been blamed for its major contribution to greenhouse gas releases and designated as a target to knock down by media, activists, and environmentalists. It is true to say that without Oil and Gas Industry, anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and CH4 would be much lower. Similarly, it is also true to state that without this industry and petroleum products, our life standards would be much different than the current standards. One should not confuse an activity which generates greenhouse gases, and the effect of product consumption. Evaluating the real routine emissions of the oil and gas industry on the same mode than every other industry is possible and constitutes the objective of this work. As a preliminary result, however, data coming from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) clearly highlight that oil and gas production accounts for at least less than 10% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector in the United States. To more precisely evaluate these emissions, this study relied on environmental impact reports in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, which are available for every production site in the U.S, as well as the oil and gas consumption in the US over the year 2015. Emissions happen during three different stages of the hydrocarbon production; extraction, flaring and venting, and fugitive emissions. The importance of each stage in terms of emissions is extremely variable, depending on the quality of the oil, the field location, and the existence of an outlet for the produced gas. The greenhouse gas emissions contribution from the Oil and Gas industry is 3% for extraction, and about 0% for flaring and venting, and 0% of fugitive emissions in the US. The remaining U.S greenhouse gas emissions while processing petroleum products are due to refining at 88%, and transportation at 9%. However, these results are extremely different for Canadian oil sands, Venezuela heavy oil, Arabian light oil, or Indonesian gas condensate. Worldwide, greenhouse emission source for petroleum industry are 10% for extraction, 19% for flaring and venting, 6% of fugitive emissions, 4% of transport, and 61% of the refinery. As a result, 3.5% of greenhouse gases emitted while processing petroleum products are due to Oil and Gas industry. Based on these results, an extrapolation to the worldwide Oil and Gas production enable to assess the participation of this industry to total emissions. Results show that less than 3 % of worldwide greenhouse emissions comes actually from Oil and Gas industry.