Hasil untuk "Germanic languages. Scandinavian languages"

Antoine Amarilli, Sven Dziadek, Luc Segoufin

For a fixed regular language $L$, the enumeration of $L$-infixes is the following task: we are given an input word $w = a_1 \cdots a_n$ and we must enumerate the infixes of $w$ that belong to $L$, i.e., the pairs $i \leq j$ such that $a_i \cdots a_j \in L$. We are interested in dynamic enumeration of $L$-infixes, where we must additionally support letter substitution updates on $w$ (e.g., "replace the $i$-th letter of $w$ by a letter $a$"). Each update changes the set of infixes to enumerate, and resets the enumeration state. We study for which regular languages $L$ we can perform dynamic enumeration of $L$-infixes in constant delay (i.e., the next infix is always produced in constant time) and constant additional memory throughout the enumeration, while supporting each update in constant time. We show that, for languages $L$ with a neutral letter, if the language $L$ belongs to the class ZG and is extensible (i.e., if $u \in L$ and $u$ is a factor of $v$ then $v \in L$), then dynamic enumeration of $L$-infixes can be achieved with a simple algorithm that ensures constant-time updates and constant delay, but not constant additional memory. Our main contribution is then to show an algorithm that additionally uses only constant additional memory, and applies to a more general class of semi-extensible ZG languages for which we give several equivalent characterizations. We further discuss whether our results can be generalized to larger language classes and show some (conditional) lower bounds.

Charles Pert, Dalal Alrajeh, Alessandra Russo

Büchi automata (BAs) recognize $ω$-regular languages defined by formal specifications like linear temporal logic (LTL) and are commonly used in the verification of reactive systems. However, BAs face scalability challenges when handling and manipulating complex system behaviors. As neural networks are increasingly used to address these scalability challenges in areas like model checking, investigating their ability to generalize beyond training data becomes necessary. This work presents the first study investigating whether recurrent neural networks (RNNs) can generalize to $ω$-regular languages derived from LTL formulas. We train RNNs on ultimately periodic $ω$-word sequences to replicate target BA behavior and evaluate how well they generalize to out-of-distribution sequences. Through experiments on LTL formulas corresponding to deterministic automata of varying structural complexity, from 3 to over 100 states, we show that RNNs achieve high accuracy on their target $ω$-regular languages when evaluated on sequences up to $8 \times$ longer than training examples, with $92.6\%$ of tasks achieving perfect or near-perfect generalization. These results establish the feasibility of neural approaches for learning complex $ω$-regular languages, suggesting their potential as components in neurosymbolic verification methods.

Verena Blaschke, Christoph Purschke, Hinrich Schütze et al.

Natural language processing (NLP) has largely focused on modelling standardized languages. More recently, attention has increasingly shifted to local, non-standardized languages and dialects. However, the relevant speaker populations' needs and wishes with respect to NLP tools are largely unknown. In this paper, we focus on dialects and regional languages related to German -- a group of varieties that is heterogeneous in terms of prestige and standardization. We survey speakers of these varieties (N=327) and present their opinions on hypothetical language technologies for their dialects. Although attitudes vary among subgroups of our respondents, we find that respondents are especially in favour of potential NLP tools that work with dialectal input (especially audio input) such as virtual assistants, and less so for applications that produce dialectal output such as machine translation or spellcheckers.

Klaus Johan Myrvoll

I studiet av norrøn sogelitteratur hev det fest seg ei meining um at berre islendingar kann ha skrive kongesogor med eit fullt framvakse prosimetrum, d.e. med mange og til dels lange skaldesitat ispedde prosaen. Ein hev meint at nordmenn ikkje åtte den kunnskapen som trongst for å kunna gjera seg nytte av denne innfløkte og ikkje so lett tilgjengelege sjangeren. Når det gjeld Morkinskinna og Heimskringla, tvo av dei kongesogone som hev mest skaldekvæde, er denne teorien uproblematisk: Desse verki må i alle høve, av andre grunnar (topografiske kunnskapar, nasjonalt perspektiv), reknast for islendske. Konfrontert med Fagrskinna, derimot, melder problemi med teorien seg snøgt. Ikkje berre er båe handskriftene (kalla Fagrskinna A og B) skrivne på gamalnorsk og var i Noreg fram til dei hamna i København på 1600-talet; teksti er òg heilt klårt skrivi frå norsk synsstad og med eit norskt perspektiv på hendingane. Ein hev vilja forklåra dette med at verket vart skrive av ein islending som arbeidde i Noreg og hadde norsk uppdragsgjevar (soleis t.d. Storm 1876, Indrebø 1917). Det kann likevel ikkje tyda ut den store lokalkunnskapen forfattaren legg for dagen, serskilt um det nordanfjellske Noreg – ein kunnskap som gjeng langt utanpå «noregsvenen» Snorre Sturlasson –, og det kann heller ikkje tyda ut den sterkt patriotiske norske tendensen me finn i verket. Denne artikkelen gjeng i rette med den vanlege syni på Fagrskinna som islendsk og viser at ho ikkje stend seg mot nærare etterprøving. Mange av dei argumenti Alfred Jakobsen (1970a) førde i marki for norsk, og meir presist trøndsk, proveniens, vert lyfte fram att og styrkte ytterlegare. Etter dette vert det freista å rekonstruera ein situasjonell logikk der det gjev fullgod meining at ein nordmann kunde ha eigna til seg dei skaldediktskunnskapane som trongst for å føra Fagrskinna i pennen. I denne rekonstruksjonen spelar både Skule jarl og Snorre Sturlasson sentrale rollor, som litterære «fadrar» for Fagskrinna-forfattaren i Nidaros i åri 1218–20.

Andy Yang, David Chiang, Dana Angluin

The expressive power of transformers over inputs of unbounded size can be studied through their ability to recognize classes of formal languages. In this paper, we establish exact characterizations of transformers with hard attention (in which all attention is focused on exactly one position) and attention masking (in which each position only attends to positions on one side). With strict masking (each position cannot attend to itself) and without position embeddings, these transformers are expressively equivalent to linear temporal logic (LTL), which defines exactly the star-free languages. A key technique is the use of Boolean RASP as a convenient intermediate language between transformers and LTL. We then take numerous results known for LTL and apply them to transformers, showing how position embeddings, strict masking, and depth all increase expressive power.

Caroline Bonhomme, Jean-Louis Dufour

A tactical military unit is a complex system composed of many agents such as infantry, robots, or drones. Given a mission, an automated planner can find an optimal plan. Therefore, the mission itself must be modeled. The problem is that languages like PDDL are too low-level to be usable by the end-user: an officer in the field. We present ORTAC+, a language and a planning tool designed for this end-user. Its main objective is to allow a natural modeling of the mission, to minimize the risk of bad modeling, and thus obtain reliable plans. The language offers high-level constructs specifically designed to describe tactical missions, but at the same time has clear semantics allowing a translation to PDDL, to take advantage of state-of-the-art planners.

Bianca Truthe

Tree-controlled grammars are context-free grammars where the derivation process is controlled in such a way that every word on a level of the derivation tree must belong to a certain control language. We investigate the generative capacity of such tree-controlled grammars where the control languages are special regular sets, especially strictly locally testable languages or languages restricted by resources of the generation (number of non-terminal symbols or production rules) or acceptance (number of states). Furthermore, the set theoretic inclusion relations of these subregular language families themselves are studied.

Ryo Wakizaka, Atsushi Igarashi

Qubit allocation is a process to assign physical qubits to logical qubits in a quantum program. Since some quantum computers have connectivity constraints on applications of two-qubit operations, it is mainly concerned with finding an assignment and inserting instructions to satisfy the connectivity constraints. Many methods have been proposed for the qubit allocation problem for low-level quantum programs. This paper presents a type-based framework of qubit allocation for a quantum programming language with first-order functions. In our framework, the connectivity constraints are expressed by a simple graph of qubits called a coupling graph. We formalize (1) the source language, whose type system verifies that the number of qubits required for a given program to run does not exceed the number of nodes of the coupling graph, (2) the target language, whose qualified type system verifies that a well-typed program satisfies the connectivity constraints, and (3) an algorithm to translate a source program into a target program. We prove that both languages are type-safe and that the translation algorithm is type preserving.

Johann Georg Lughofer

A brief overview of the importance of suicide in literature and the state of research reveals the lack of studies that shed light on suicide in relation to (the First World) War. The usual definitions of terms include a suicide out of constraints that can come from outside. With regard to the Austrian army officers, this was usually the code of honor, which can require suicide not only in war and in duels. In the war, on the one hand suicidal tendencies in heroic figures are shown in the literature, but also the forced suicide of entire armies in the case of hopeless missions. In texts by Andreas Latzko and Joseph Roth, however, suicide is presented as an opportunity to undermine the madness of the war and prevent yourself from becoming a murderer.

Finnur Ágúst Ingimundarson, Matthew Whelpton

This article discusses a somewhat peculiar “agreement” in Icelandic. In (i) we see such an agreement between the subject, on the one hand, and the finite verb and the predicate, on the other. (i) Englar alheimsins er komin út á ensku. angels.masc.pl of.the.universe is.sg published.fem.sg in English ‘Angels of the Universe has been published in English.’ Interestingly, the head of the subject is in the masculine plural while the finite verb is in the singular and the predicate in the feminine singular. Normally we would have expected the agreement to be as shown in (ii), with the verb and the predicate in the plural and the gender on the latter to be masculine. (ii) Eru englar ódauðlegir? are.pl angels.masc.pl immortal.masc.pl ‘Are angels immortal?’ What is crucial for the agreement pattern in (i), however, is that Englar alheimsins is the title of a book. Even though the noun bók ‘book’ is not visible it seems to directly affect the agreement. In fact, we argue in the article that the structure in examples like (i) contains a concealed or elided noun with which finite verbs, predicates, attributive adjectives, etc., can agree. Such nouns are often found in noun phrases that signify, e.g., titles or proper names that are fairly long, and also in noun phrases that contain foreign words that do not inflect, such as Liverpool or Radiohead. We compare this type of agreement with semantic agreement, such as in (iii), and so-called restaurant talk, as in (iv) (iii) Krakkarnir eru þreytt. the.kids.masc.pl are tired.neut.pl ‘The kids are tired.’ (iv) Ég keypti tvo kaffi. I bought two.masc coffee.neut ‘I bought two cups of coffee.’ We conclude that the agreement of the type in (i) resembles restaurant talk which also seems to involve a concealed noun. We do not, however, argue that semantic agreement contains a concealed noun.

A. Pfaff

This article attempts to put a new spin on (the development of) weakly inflected adjectives, with a particular focus on North Germanic, by recycling some traditional ideas. Point of departure is the observation that the Proto-Norse demonstrative hinn had ended up as a functional element in the extended adjectival projection in Old Icelandic – not as a definite article in the extended nominal projection (an otherwise well-known grammaticalization process). Following the old idea that weak inflection originally involved nominalization, it is argued that weak “adjectives” maintained their nominal status beyond Proto-Germanic. Thus the grammaticalizing article originating from the demonstrative hinn occurs as a determiner with a weak “adjective” that really projects a nominal phrase. At some stage prior to Old Icelandic, this constellation is reanalyzed in its entirety, at the phrasal level, from nominal phrase to adjectival phrase, a process in which the original demonstrative gets “trapped” inside the adjectival projection and is reanalyzed as adjectival article. Only after this process of phrasal reanalysis can we speak of weak adjectives proper. 1. Weak adjectival inflection in Germanic One common Germanic innovation is the development of two adjectival paradigms, traditionally referred to as strong and weak inflection (after Grimm 1837). The distinction strong vs. weak as such has survived – to various degrees – into most modern Germanic languages, where they however display different synchronic functions. In modern German, for instance, the inflection of an (attributive) adjective is essentially determined by morphology/morphosyntax, whereas in Scandinavian, weakly inflected adjectives occur in contexts that can be characterized as semantically definite. The emergence of the weak inflection has been extensively discussed since the 19th century. It is widely accepted that both weak adjectives and weak nouns originally involved a stem formation element, or rather, a derivational suffix ‘-n-’. One of the most prominent suggestions concerning the original function of the suffix, “individualization”, essentially boils down to nominalization, morphosyntactically speaking. Indeed, the nominal character of weak adjectives has been repeatedly pointed out. In some sense, however, none of those accounts has taken the syntactic consequences insofar as the respective discussions always revolve around the opposition strong vs. weak adjective. In this article, I will take the nominalizing aspect seriously and argue that this is a false dichotomy: weak “adjectives” are nominal in nature, that is of category N, in early Germanic, and consequently, they project some noun phrase rather than an adjectival phrase. I will start out by discussing the situation in Old Icelandic where weak adjectives systematically cooccur with the adjectival article (h)inn thus constituting an adjectival phrase. Weak adjectives themselves are “defective”, i.e. incomplete adjectival phrases, and (h)inn functions as an adjectival complementizer. This leads to the question of how this constellation could come about, namely, that it is the sequence (h)inn – a former demonstrative – plus a weak adjective that forms a weak adjectival phrase proper, rather than the weak adjective on its own. The answer that I will provide is that the same sequence, at a previous stage, constituted a nominal phrase with the weak “adjective” as its head noun. In order to advance this idea, I will start out at the other end of the diachronic spectrum and sketch the development from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) towards Old Icelandic arguing that weak “adjectives” emerged via phrasal reanalysis from nominal c © Alexander Pfaff. Nordlyd 44.1: 19-34, CGSW 34 Proceedings of the 34th Comparative Germanic Syntax Workshop held in Konstanz in 2019, edited by Andreas Trotzke and George Walkden, University of Konstanz. Published at the University of Tromsø – The Arctic University of Norway. http://septentrio.uit.no/index.php/nordlyd https://doi.org/10.7557/12.5208 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons “Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported” license. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEAK ADJECTIVAL INFLECTION IN (NORTH) GERMANIC phrase to adjectival phrase. The gist of the narrative is summarized in the following table:1,2 i. PIE ii. Germanic iii. Proto-Norse iv. Viking Period v. Modern Icelandic – Old Icelandic [xNP “A”.WK ] [xNP DEM “A”.WK ] [xAP ART A.WK ] [xAP A.WK ] [xNP “A” ] [xAP A.STR ] [xAP A.STR ] [xAP A.STR ] [xAP A.STR ] Table 1: Development of adjectives from PIE into North Germanic The discussion is structured as follows: Sect. 2 is dedicated to establishing the relevant facts about weakly inflected adjectives and the adjectival article (h)inn in Old Icelandic, which constitutes the point of departure for the discussion to follow. In Sect. 3.1, I will sketch the development of adjectives from Proto-IndoEuropean to Germanic introducing the idea that Proto-Indo-European did not have a separate category adjective distinct from nouns, and taking a look at the two adjectival paradigms in Proto-Germanic. I will the discuss the role of the n-suffix involved in the creation of weak nominals, and argue that what are usually called weak “adjectives” are really nouns. In Sect. 4, I will take a closer look at the development from Proto-Norse to Old Icelandic. It will be shown that nominal epithets constitute the oldest (attested) context for weak “adjectives”, but also the former demonstrative hinn. I will suggest that the demonstrative – or appositive article – gradually takes over the nominalization function originally associated with the weak inflection. During the Viking Period, the sequence (h)inn + weak “adjective” is reanalysed in its entirety, from nominal phrase to adjectival phrase leading to the development of an adjectival article and weak adjectives proper. Sect. 5 concludes. 2. Weak adjectival inflection in Old Icelandic 2.1. From Proto-Norse to Old Norse The element hinn is attested as a demonstrative in Proto-Norse Runic inscriptions, (1).3 From the Viking Period onwards hinn, or the reduced form inn, occurs as an adjectival article, systematically co-occurring with a weakly inflected adjective, (2):4 (1) a. hali stone hino DEM (N KJ50 $U) b. a on hitt DEM land land (KJ101 $U) 1Labels for language stages are intended as a rough chronological guideline, rather than hard claims about a specific period for a specific development. On the periodization of Norse, see the next section. Modern Icelandic will not be discussed here; it is included in table 1 for the sake of completeness; see Pfaff (2019) on the development from stage iv. to v. Glosses used here: ART – freestanding adjectival article; DEF – suffixed definite article; POSS – 3. pers. reflexive possessive; DEM – demonstrative; WK – weak adjectival inflection; STR – strong adjectival inflection; UNDEC – “undecidable” (whether strong or weak; notably, this applies to adjectives in the comparative). 2The labels “xAP”/“xNP” designate some unspecified extended adjectival/nominal projection, e.g. AP, aP, DegP/NP, nP, DP etc. with possibly unspecified material in the functional layer, and will be used throughout when the precise status of the constituent is not at issue. Note that the notation in table 1 does not strictly speaking comply with the X-bar scheme. It is not literally suggested that an element of the category A projects a nominal phrase (hence the quotation marks “A”). I will use this notation to indicate that certain elements that are traditionally/conventionally considered adjectives are actually nominals heading an xNP. For the same reason, I will use quotation marks (“adjective”) in the text when referring to those elements. 3All Runic examples, incl. signature, are taken from Samnordisk Rundatabas (http://www.nordiska.uu.se/forskn/ samnord.htm). I also adopt the periodization for Proto-Norse (prior to ca. 725) and Viking Period (ca. 725-1100), but instead of Medieval Period (from 1100 onwards), I will specifically talk about Old Icelandic because the examples used for illustration are from that language – even though the relevant generalizations made will apply more widely to Old (West) Norse as well. 4For the sake of exposition, I will use this term throughout this section for the element (h)inn, but in Sect. 4, I will distinguish between adjectival article proper and appositive article for uses as in (2).

Jürgen Eder

Mihaela Mocanu, Alina-Mihaela Bursuc

A significant number of multilingual dictionaries (in at least three languages) were published in Romania after the Revolution of December 1989. In the context of an unprecedented evolution of multilingualism, experts in various fields, as well as higher education professors identify specific communication needs and potential users and foresee preferential contexts of dictionary use. This article presents the outcomes of a study on the main categories of users and contexts of use of multilingual dictionaries edited in Romania after 1989. This analytical approach targets a representative sample of dictionaries selected on the basis of three criteria imposed by the research limits: temporal (dictionaries edited in the period 1990–2010), idiomatic (works presenting the list of entries in Romanian) and formal (the multilingual character stated explicitly in the title of the dictionary). The first part of the article accounts for the stage of research related to dictionary users and a short presentation of Romanian lexicography in general and of multilingual lexicography in particular. The second part of the study describes the methodology and proposes a systematization of the categories of potential users and the contexts of dictionary use as envisaged by the authors of the dictionaries under analysis.

Sonia Vaupot

Creating a Slovene–French LSP Dictionary for translation purposes. In order to compensate for the lack of lexicographical resources for the French–Slovenian language pair in the field of specialized translation, a bilateral project has been set up with the aim of developing an online dictionary to be used as a lexicographical tool and as an aid for writing scientific texts. This article presents a method that allows students to actively participate in the process of creating an online database for storing information on specialized terminology and phraseology. We first present the lexicographical situation in Slovenia, especially for the French–Slovenian language pair, and then the objectives of the project as well as the teaching method aimed at creating comparable corpora and lexicographical resources compiled by the students. Finally, we conclude with a synthesis of the results obtained. This method, which has been used since 2018 in a Masters course, provides excellent results from a practical and pedagogical point of view.

Rustam Tagiew

The target of this paper is to present an industry-ready prototype software for general game playing. This software can also be used as the central element for experimental economics research, interfacing of game-theoretic libraries, AI-driven software testing, algorithmic trade, human behavior mining and simulation of (strategic) interactions. The software is based on a domain-specific language for electronic business to business negotiations -- SIDL3.0. The paper also contains many examples to prove the power of this language.

Albert Benveniste, Benoît Caillaud, Mathias Malandain

Modern modeling languages for general physical systems, such as Modelica, Amesim, or Simscape, rely on Differential Algebraic Equations (DAE), i.e., constraints of the form f(dot{x},x,u)=0. This drastically facilitates modeling from first principles of the physics and the reuse of models. In this paper we develop the mathematical theory needed to establish the development of compilers and tools for DAE based physical modeling languages on solid mathematical bases. Unlike Ordinary Differential Equations, DAE exhibit subtle issues because of the notion of differentiation index and related latent equations -- ODE are DAE of index zero for which no latent equation needs to be considered. Prior to generating execution code and calling solvers, the compilation of such languages requires a nontrivial \emph{structural analysis} step that reduces the differentiation index to a level acceptable by DAE solvers. The models supported by tools of the Modelica class involve multiple modes with mode-dependent DAE based dynamics and state-dependent mode switching. Multimode DAE are much more difficult than DAE. The main difficulty is the handling of the events of mode change. Unfortunately, the large literature devoted to the mathematical analysis of DAEs does not cover the multimode case, typically saying nothing about mode changes. This lack of foundations causes numerous difficulties to the existing modeling tools. Some models are well handled, others are not, with no clear boundary between the two classes. In this paper, we develop a comprehensive mathematical approach supporting compilation and code generation for this class of languages. Its core is the structural analysis of multimode DAE systems. As a byproduct of this structural analysis, we propose well sound criteria for accepting or rejecting models. For our mathematical development, we rely on nonstandard analysis, which allows us to cast hybrid systems dynamics to discrete time dynamics with infinitesimal step size, thus providing a uniform framework for handling both continuous dynamics and mode change events.

Stefan Hoffmann

The class of known constraint automata for which the constrained synchronization problem is in NP all admit a special form. In this work, we take a closer look at them. We characterize a wider class of constraint automata that give constrained synchronization problems in NP, which encompasses all known problems in NP. We call these automata polycyclic automata. The corresponding language class of polycyclic languages is introduced. We show various characterizations and closure properties for this new language class. We then give a criterion for NP-completeness and a criterion for polynomial time solvability for polycyclic constraint languages.

Eva Skafte Jensen, Carsten Levisen, T. Hougaard

By revisiting interjections in Scandinavian Studies in Language, the explicit goal of the issue is to bring together Scandinavian and global perspectives on interjections. Our volume opens up Scandinavia-based research to the global audience, and at the same time, our analysis is characterized by deep connections with global scholarships in the plural. The seminal work on interjections by Wierzbicka (1991 [2003]); and Ameka (1992) had a crosslinguistic vision that continues to inspire the ongoing work of understanding both local interjections and global comparison.

Magnus Källström

Ynaiara dos Santos, Hudson Kleinbing, Liane Scribelk et al.

Unter Bezugnahme auf den Deutschstudiengang an einer Bundesuniversität im Südosten Brasiliens beschreibt der Artikel zunächst einige Grundlagen der Deutschlehrerausbildung des Landes. Dabei wird deutlich, wie wichtig die Verknüpfung von Theorie und Praxis für die Kompetenzentwicklung der Studierenden ist. Vor diesem Hintergrund wird ein Seminarangebot aus dem Deutschstudiengang der Universität vorgestellt, bei dem die Teilnehmenden im Rahmen der Aktionsforschung ihren eigenen Unterricht reflektieren und damit ihr professionelles Handeln als Lehrkräfte stärken können. Aus den Erfahrungen heraus werden schließlich einige Vorschläge für eine sinnvolle Integration reflexiver Elemente in die Lehrerausbildung formuliert.