Hasil untuk "Law of nations"

T. Franck

Keito Inoshita

Large language models (LLMs) possess extensive world knowledge, yet methods for effectively eliciting this knowledge remain underexplored. Nationality and region prediction tasks require understanding of not only linguistic features but also cultural and historical background, making LLM world knowledge particularly valuable. However, conventional LLM prompting methods rely on direct reasoning approaches, which have limitations in applying abstract linguistic rules. We propose LLM Associative Memory Agents (LAMA), a novel framework that leverages LLM world knowledge as associative memory. Rather than directly inferring nationality from names, LAMA recalls famous individuals with the same name and aggregates their nationalities through indirect reasoning. A dual-agent architecture comprising a Person Agent and a Media Agent, specialized in different knowledge domains, recalls famous individuals in parallel, generating Top-1 predictions through voting and Top-K predictions through conditional completion. On a 99-country nationality prediction task, LAMA achieved 0.817 accuracy, substantially outperforming conventional LLM prompting methods and neural models. Our experiments reveal that LLMs exhibit higher reliability in recalling concrete examples than in abstract reasoning, that recall-based approaches are robust to low-frequency nationalities independent of data frequency distributions, and that the dual-agent architecture functions complementarily to produce synergistic effects. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of a new multi-agent system that retrieves and aggregates LLM knowledge rather than prompting reasoning.

S. Merry

Nadia ASAAD

In response to Serbia’s request, the United Nations General Assembly sought an Advisory Opinion from the International Court of Justice regarding the legality of Kosovo’s 2008 unilateral declaration of independence. Employing a conceptual framework grounded in judicial activism and restraint, this analysis critically examines the Court’s inconsistent exercise of its discretionary powers, applied in stretching and retracting both the scope of the question posed, as well as its own judicial propriety. The Court’s selective engagement with these legal questions reveals an underlying judicial strategy: one that avoids unresolved ambiguities, reflects implicit views on statehood, and navigates the uneasy space international law occupies between norm entrepreneurship and the Court’s commitment to apolitical neutrality and political restraint. Tracing the Court’s reasoning through this lens offers insight into the multifaceted drivers of its interpretive approach to politically sensitive issues, and ultimately, to the evolution of international law.

Walter Pedro Villegas Limache

El presente trabajo se apoya en la categoría jurídica del semipresidencialismo y la Asamblea Constituyente para demostrar la existencia actual del hiperpresidencialismo en el Perú. Ello se debe a la omisión de interpretaciones constitucionales o a las interpretaciones erróneas de los Poderes Ejecutivo y Legislativo, los cuales no trabajan en armonía, sino que están enfrentados. Esta crisis política ha ocasionado la desvirtuación del control entre estos poderes, los cuales irrespetan lo establecido en la Constitución Política de 1993, concerniente a la estructura del Estado peruano.

Hari Shankar, Vedanta S P, Tejas Cavale et al.

Large Language Models (LLMs) are capable of generating opinions and propagating bias unknowingly, originating from unrepresentative and non-diverse data collection. Prior research has analysed these opinions with respect to the West, particularly the United States. However, insights thus produced may not be generalized in non-Western populations. With the widespread usage of LLM systems by users across several different walks of life, the cultural sensitivity of each generated output is of crucial interest. Our work proposes a novel method that quantitatively analyzes the opinions generated by LLMs, improving on previous work with regards to extracting the social demographics of the models. Our method measures the distance from an LLM's response to survey respondents, through Hamming Distance, to infer the demographic characteristics reflected in the model's outputs. We evaluate modern, open LLMs such as Llama and Mistral on surveys conducted in various global south countries, with a focus on India and other Asian nations, specifically assessing the model's performance on surveys related to religious tolerance and identity. Our analysis reveals that most open LLMs match a single homogeneous profile, varying across different countries/territories, which in turn raises questions about the risks of LLMs promoting a hegemonic worldview, and undermining perspectives of different minorities. Our framework may also be useful for future research investigating the complex intersection between training data, model architecture, and the resulting biases reflected in LLM outputs, particularly concerning sensitive topics like religious tolerance and identity.

Ashwin P. Dani

In this paper, a constrained parameter update law is derived in the context of adaptive control. The parameter update law is based on constrained optimization technique where a Lagrangian is formulated to incorporate the constraints on the parameters using inverse Barrier function. The constrained parameter update law is used to develop a adaptive tracking controller and the overall stability of the adaptive controller along with the constrained parameter update law is shown using Lyapunov analysis and development in stability of constrained primal-dual dynamics. The performance of the constrained parameter update law is tested in simulation for keeping the parameters within constraints and convergence to true parameters.

Zhenyuan Yang, Xuhui Lin, Qinyi He et al.

The emergence of Large Language Models (LLMs) and multimodal foundation models (FMs) has generated heightened interest in their applications that integrate vision and language. This paper investigates the capabilities of ChatGPT-4V and Gemini Pro for Street View Imagery, Built Environment, and Interior by evaluating their performance across various tasks. The assessments include street furniture identification, pedestrian and car counts, and road width measurement in Street View Imagery; building function classification, building age analysis, building height analysis, and building structure classification in the Built Environment; and interior room classification, interior design style analysis, interior furniture counts, and interior length measurement in Interior. The results reveal proficiency in length measurement, style analysis, question answering, and basic image understanding, but highlight limitations in detailed recognition and counting tasks. While zero-shot learning shows potential, performance varies depending on the problem domains and image complexities. This study provides new insights into the strengths and weaknesses of multimodal foundation models for practical challenges in Street View Imagery, Built Environment, and Interior. Overall, the findings demonstrate foundational multimodal intelligence, emphasizing the potential of FMs to drive forward interdisciplinary applications at the intersection of computer vision and language.

UDEOJI EBELE ANGELA, OCHOGA EDWIN OCHOGA

The paper examined the abuse of diplomatic immunities and privileges among nations. It specifically set out to ascertain the cases of abuse of diplomatic immunity and the implications on the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Immunity Relations, 1961. The paper adopted the theory of Diplomatic Immunity and argued that immunities and privileges accorded diplomats in the receiving state is for the purpose of effective representation. Thus, the paper revealed that many states have had cases of abuse of diplomatic immunity in the area of criminal and civil crimes. Some of such cases include the killing of an American police, Yvonne Fletcher, Kidnapping of Umaru Dikko and other criminal and civil offenses. Even though the Vienna Convention provided remedies against abuse of diplomatic immunity, cases of abuse are at alarming rate and its poses threat to diplomatic relations among states. The paper concluded that, some diplomats have taken advantage of their immunity to commit crimes and the development is a threat to the sanctity of international law particularly the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Immunity Relations, 1961 regime. It recommends that every diplomat who commits offense should be met to face the wrath of the law after their sojourn in foreign land.

Shinta Hadiyantina, Zainal Amin Ayub, Dewi Cahyandari et al.

Medical tourism is popular within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region, especially in the Indonesian region. The economic prosperity, closer vicinity as compared to Jakarta, and the quality of medical services provided in the neighbouring countries lead to medical tourism prospering among the Indonesians. Malaysia is one of the most frequently visited countries by Indonesians as medical tourists. The growth of medical tourism triggers issues of the adequacy of the Indonesian and Malaysian laws to regulate cross-border medical records. It is the aim of this study to examine the adequacy of the current laws in handling cross-border medical records. This study applied doctrinal legal research methodology, i.e., mainly library-based research, where the main legal materials were from Malaysia and Indonesia. It was found that the need for personal data protection is a necessity since boundaries among jurisdictions are becoming “borderless”. The Malaysian law, although comprehensive, has yet to gazette any country as a “whitelisted country” to allow for cross-border data. The Indonesian law does not regulate crossborder medical records. The risk of personal data leakage has become imminent. The importance of cross-border medical records protection is important to create safe integrated medical records. While Malaysia has enacted a comprehensive legal framework on personal data protection (including medical data), Indonesia needs to enhance its legal framework in protecting the data. Regionally, the legal framework of cross-border personal data between Malaysia and Indonesia should be updated in accordance with the ASEAN Data Management Framework.

Andrii Voitsikhovskyi, Oleksandr Bakumov, Olena Ustymenko et al.

State recognition of human rights and freedoms by enshrining them in the constitution and other legislative acts is the first and most urgent step towards their establishment and implementation. However, the role of the state should not be limited to this sole aspect. The state should make every effort to guarantee, protect, and defend both human and citizen rights and freedoms, which determines its main direction of humanization and humanitarian characteristics. Various international organizations, which constitute an international legal mechanism to protect human rights, play a significant role in the observance and protection of these rights and freedoms in Ukraine. The activity of these international organizations is primarily aimed at reforming the national system in this regard, rulemaking, and ensuring accountability, the rule of law, and dialogue between government and society. Consequently, these international organizations can be considered an additional guarantee for the observance and protection of human and civil rights and freedoms. This research aims to review the role and influence of international organizations such as the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the European Union, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe in the formation of the national mechanism to protect human rights and freedoms in Ukraine. For this purpose, international legal documents adopted within these organizations were analyzed to determine their specific features, role, and implementation in the country.

Dr Christopher Ochanja Ngara

This paper critically examines the appropriateness or otherwise of the granting of asylum status to former Liberian President, Charles Taylor by the Nigerian government on August 11, 2003. The paper argues that the granting of asylum status to Taylor was consistent with Nigeria’s Afrocentric foreign policy and traditional “big brother” role in Africa. The objective of the asylum was to end the 14-year-old-conflict and return peace and stability to Liberia. However, after the asylum was granted to Mr. Taylor, Nigeria came under serious international pressure from the United States (US) and Western allies to release Taylor for trial at the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL). Using desktop review, the findings showed that the asylum was an outcome of a multilateral agreement in which the United Nations (UN), African Union, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the US, and the United Kingdom (UK) played active roles. The paper also establishes that granting asylum to Taylor was within Nigeria’s international obligation under Article 12(3) of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights of 1981, for which Taylor qualified at the time of the asylum. Similarly, the Declaration of Territorial Asylum, 1967 gives asylum granting the state the powers to evaluate the grounds for granting such asylum. Thus, Nigeria’s asylum accorded to Taylor was the country’s prerogative and consistent with international law even though he was indicted for war crimes and crimes against humanity by the SCSL. Therefore, Nigeria’s action in granting asylum to Mr. Taylor neither violated any treaty to which Nigeria was a signatory at the time of granting the asylum nor amounted to a diplomatic blunder. Rather, Nigeria’s willingness to grant asylum to Taylor which subsequently led to the successful resolution of the Liberian crisis was widely commended in global diplomatic circles. Apart from applying indigenous diplomacy in conflict resolution, Nigeria’s rating as an effective regional power increased. To sustain the country’s pedigree of diplomatic excellence in resolving the Liberian crisis, Nigeria should rally ECOWAS countries to deepen economic integration, achieve self-reliance and make the sub-region less vulnerable to manipulation by Western powers.

Fan Shi, Bin Li, Xiangyang Xue

Human cognition has compositionality. We understand a scene by decomposing the scene into different concepts (e.g., shape and position of an object) and learning the respective laws of these concepts, which may be either natural (e.g., laws of motion) or man-made (e.g., laws of a game). The automatic parsing of these laws indicates the model's ability to understand the scene, which makes law parsing play a central role in many visual tasks. This paper proposes a deep latent variable model for Compositional LAw Parsing (CLAP), which achieves the human-like compositionality ability through an encoding-decoding architecture to represent concepts in the scene as latent variables. CLAP employs concept-specific latent random functions instantiated with Neural Processes to capture the law of concepts. Our experimental results demonstrate that CLAP outperforms the baseline methods in multiple visual tasks such as intuitive physics, abstract visual reasoning, and scene representation. The law manipulation experiments illustrate CLAP's interpretability by modifying specific latent random functions on samples. For example, CLAP learns the laws of position-changing and appearance constancy from the moving balls in a scene, making it possible to exchange laws between samples or compose existing laws into novel laws.

Sandeep Kumar Mohanty, Soumya Prakash Patra

Illegal wildlife trade is one of the major transnational crimes. Transnational Crime, by its very nature, is problematic as it surpasses national jurisdictions, as well as the parameters of information systems and law enforcement agencies. Illegal wildlife trade networks increasingly operate like global multinational businesses, connecting local markets to the global markets through complex and interlinked networks.Against this background, CITES was entered into, multinational environmental agreement to which 183 nations are parties to it and India, being a member of CITES, in compliance with the guidelines, has enacted an umbrella of 8 legislation for the protection of wildlife in India. But despite this austere legislation, India is progressively becoming a hub of illegal wildlife trade.The illegal laundering of wild-caught animals via legal pathways is subject to increased scrutiny. It appears that illegal wildlife traders are rampantly using other covert methods to smuggle these animals into the territories of target consumer countries, such as China. Once they enter into the jurisdiction of destination countries that permit legal trade in this species, it becomes arduous for the relevant enforcement agencies to distinguish between the wild-caught and captive-bred animals.The author undertakes to carry out a comparative analysis of the existing legislation of China concerning India to understand whether the legislation is robust enough for the protection of the wildlife and how the enforcement mechanism can be strengthened for the advancement of the endangered species.

Robert C. Kennicutt, Mithi A. C. de los Reyes

We compile observations of molecular gas contents and infrared-based star formation rates (SFRs) for 112 circumnuclear star forming regions, in order to re-investigate the form of the disk-averaged Schmidt surface density star formation law in starbursts. We then combine these results with total gas and SFR surface densities for 153 nearby non-starbursting disk galaxies from de los Reyes \& Kennicutt (2019), to investigate the properties of the combined star formation law, following Kennicutt (1998; K98). We confirm that the combined Schmidt law can be fitted with a single power law with slope $n = 1.5\pm0.05$ (including fitting method uncertainties), somewhat steeper than the value $n = 1.4\pm0.15$ found by K98. Fitting separate power laws to the non-starbursting and starburst galaxies, however, produces very different slopes ($n = 1.34\pm0.07$ and $0.98\pm0.07$, respectively), with a pronounced offset in the zeropoint ($\sim$0.6\,dex) of the starburst relation to higher SFR surface densities. This offset is seen even when a common conversion factor between CO intensity and molecular hydrogen surface density is applied, and is confirmed when disk surface densities of interstellar dust are used as proxies for gas measurements. Tests for possible systematic biases in the starburst data fail to uncover any spurious sources for such a large offset. We tentatively conclude that the global Schmidt law in galaxies, at least as it is conventionally measured, is bimodal or possibly multi-modal. Possible causes may include changes in the small-scale structure of the molecular ISM or the stellar initial mass function. A single $n \sim 1.5$ power law still remains as a credible approximation or "recipe" for analytical or numerical models of galaxy formation and evolution.

Matti Estola, Kristian Vepsäläinen

The 2008 economic crisis was not forecastable by at that time existing models of macroeconomics. Thus macroeconomics needs new tools. We introduce a model based on National Accounts that shows how macroeconomic sectors are interconnected. These connections explain the spread of business cycles from one industry to another and from financial sector to the real economy. These lingages cannot be explained by General Equilibrium type of models. Our model describes the real part of National Accounts (NA) of an economy. The accounts are presented in the form of a money flow diagram between the following macro-sectors: Non-financial firms, financial firms, households, government, and rest of the world. The model contains all main items in NA and the corresponding simulation model creates time paths for 59 key macroeconomic quantities for an unlimited future. Finnish data of NA from time period 1975-2012 is used in calibrating the parameters of the model, and the model follows the historical data with sufficient accuracy. Our study serves as a basis for systems analytic macro-models that can explain the positive and negative feed-backs in the production system of an economy. These feed-backs are born from interactions between economic units and between real and financial markets. JEL E01, E10. Key words: Stock-Flow Models, National Accounts, Simulation model.

D. Berliner

Nicoleta Roxana ŞERBĂNOIU

The evolution of contemporary private law is due to the recognition of the importance of human rights, knowing a real progress in the last period of time, which has led to the promotion and protection of the person's subjective civil rights. It is very important that, in addition to legal coercive values, society should accept the importance of civil subjective rights and respect them. Correspondences to civil subjective rights are the obligations, and in terms of family law, the personal obligations of spouses are of particular importance. In order not to be ineffective, these rights must be applied rationally and it is necessary that they come to defend the injured person both physically and mentally. It is very important that, in addition to legal coercive values, society should accept the importance of civil subjective rights and respect them. Although at European level we can observe an exponential increase of the values protected by the adoption of the European Convention on Human Rights and its implementation from the adoption until now in Romania the respect of the civil subjective rights remains at the discretion of each individual, force can not cover all the cases that may arise. Correspondences to civil subjective rights are the obligations, and in terms of family law, the personal obligations of spouses are of particular importance. The husband's personal rights and obligations are inseparable from spouses and can not be alienated. They can not be the subject of the matrimonial agreement or of any other contracts. This provides an essential principle of family law - the equality of spouses in family - and excludes any attempt to violate it by concluding legal acts. Equality of spouses in rights derives from all social relations based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Political Rights of Women, adopted by the United Nations on 20 December 1952, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women adopted on 18 December 1979, Civil Code.

Iván Rodríguez Chávez

Bilingual Table of Contents

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