The purpose of this article is to investigate how adult L1 users of Estonian describe their written language proficiency and how their responses reflect language ideologies. Data were collected from 668 participants, with an average age of 48 years (89% were women; 71% had completed higher education). The results show traces of deep-rooted standard language ideology as well as nationalist ideology. Some of the attitudes found can also be associated with the concept of linguistic insecurity, according to which the “best language” and the current rules and norms of standardized language have the highest value. It can be said that language stereotypes are based on the high status of the standard language, which may be the influence of standard language ideology, and that the majority of the participants in this survey consider standard Estonian as their mother tongue.
Kokkuvõte. Kristel Algvere: Täiskasvanud L1 kasutajate hoiakud oma kirjaliku eesti keele oskuse suhtes kui tõend sügavalt juurdunud keeleideoloogiatest. Käesolev artikkel keskendub hoiakutele ja ideoloogiatele, mis peituvad uskumustes kirjaoskuse ja kirjakeele kohta. Artiklis otsitakse vastust küsimusele: kuidas kirjeldavad täiskasvanud eesti keele L1-kasutajad oma keeleoskust ja millised keeleideoloogiate jäljed ilmnevad nende vabatekstilistest kommentaaridest? Andmeid koguti 668 osalejalt, kelle keskmine vanus oli 48 aastat, kellest 89% olid naised ja 71% kõrgharidusega. Tulemused näitavad nii sügavalt juurdunud standardkeele ideoloogia kui ka rahvusliku ideoloogia jälgi. Leitud hoiakuid võib seostada ka keelelise ebakindluse kontseptsiooniga, kus „parim keel“ ning kehtivad standardkeele reeglid ja normid on kõige suurema väärtusega. Võib öelda, et hoiakud põhinevad standardkeele kõrgel staatusel, mis on seotud standardkeele ideoloogiaga ja et suur osa selles uuringus osalenutest peab eesti keele standardkeelt oma emakeeleks, on seotud rahvusliku ideoloogiaga.
This study focuses on the metadiscourse category of endophoric markers in Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian linguistics research articles. The aim is to investigate whether language, writing tradition, or disciplinary conventions play a more significant role in the variation of these metadiscourse markers across the three languages. Furthermore, the study seeks to determine whether the use of endophoric markers might reflect distinct writing traditions in the Baltic states. For the study, we collected corpora from the key linguistics journals in Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian. Comparison of different types of endophoric markers, including reviewing and previewing markers, visuals, and references to the whole text, reveals a number of language- and discipline-specific differences in the distributional properties and functions of these metadiscourse markers. This crosslinguistic variation of endophorics might be attributed to different writing styles or writing traditions in the Baltic states.
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"“Vt järgnevat arutelu siinse uuringu lõpus”: tekstisisesed viited eesti, läti ja leedu teadusartiklites"
Artikkel uurib metadiskursuse üht kategooriat, tekstisiseseid viiteid (ingl endophoric markers) eesti, läti ja leedu keeleteaduslikes artiklites. Eesmärk on välja selgitada, kas tekstisiseste viidete varieerumist võib mõjutada rohkem keel, kirjutamistraditsioon või valdkondlikud tavad. Otsitakse vastust küsimusele, kas tekstisiseste viidete kasutusmustrid peegeldavad Balti riikide erinevaid kirjutamis traditsioone. Uurimisandmestiku moodustavad kolm omakorpust, millest igaühte on kogutud keeleteaduslikud artiklid ühes keeles. Analüüs keskendub teadus artiklites esinevatele eri tüüpi tekstisisestele viidetele: 1) ees- või 2) tagapool kirjutatule, 3) visuaalsetele elementidele või 4) kogu tekstile osutavatele keelenditele. Analüüsi tulemusena ilmnesid mitmesugused keele- ja valdkonnaspetsiifilised eripärad nii metadiskursuse markerite jaotuses kui ka funktsioonides. Sellist tekstisiseste viidete varieerumist keeliti võib põhjendada erinevate kirjutamisstiilide või -traditsioonidega Balti riikides.
Eesti muutumisega sisseränderiigiks on kaasnenud eesti keele kui teise keele (E2) õppe sihtrühmade mitmekesisus ning vajadus uuenduslike õppeviiside järele. Keeleõppija võimalusele arendada oma keeleoskust keelekeskkonnas on siiani vähe tähelepanu pööratud. Õppijad kurdavad, et igapäevaelus on raske eesti keelt harjutada, sest emakeelekõneleja vahetab pigem suhtluskeelt, selmet keeleõppijat toetada.
2019. ja 2020. aasta sügissemestril viisime TLÜ projektiõppeaines ELU ehk erialasid lõimiv uuendus läbi keeleõppeprojekti eesmärgiga teadvustada üliõpilaste seas uuenduslikke keeleõppemeetodeid, mitteformaalõppe võimalusi, aga ka emakeelekõneleja rolli keeleõppija toetamisel. Artiklis anname ülevaate projektil põhinevast juhtumiuuringust, mille aluseks on osalenud üliõpilaste ja õppejõudude eneserefleksioon. Vastame küsimustele: mida eeldab märkamatu keeleõpe läbiviijalt; millised olid osalenute arusaamad märkamatust keeleõppest kursuse järel.
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Unnoticeable language teaching
Since 2015 Estonia’s immigration balance has been positive. That has brought along increased variety in L2 learners and a need for innovative approaches to L2 teaching. Little attention has been paid to the language learner’s opportunities to develop their language skills in the authentic environment: according to learners, native speakers tend to change the language to the common lingua franca instead of supporting them.
The article gives an overview of a case study of an unnoticeable language teaching project that was carried out within an interdisciplinary project course at Tallinn University where students from various disciplines participated together. The main objectives of the project were to propagate innovative language teaching methods and opportunities for non-formal learning, but also to develop a new language teaching style and to increase native speakers’ consciousness of their role in supporting learners and to support integration. The study is based on self-reflections of both students and project leaders and aims to find out what unnoticeable language teaching requires from organisers of activities and how participants defined this approach at the end of the project.
Most students became considerably more aware of innovative language teaching methods and their effectiveness. The project was particularly useful for those who could use their new skills in their work (teachers, coaches etc.), but others found it beneficial as well. Nevertheless, it became obvious that the integration-related goals should be better emphasized throughout the course: these were seldom mentioned in the self-reflections. Students should also be referred to cogitate upon how they could use their new skills when communicating with non-Estonian speakers. Native Estonian speakers should realise their responsibility in supporting learners and recognising themselves as an authentic language resource. Though it was not often explicitly expressed, the self-reflections indicated that our projects’ participants will not be as eager to change language as before.
The practical outcome of the project could be a non-formal or in-service program for educationalists. We hope the project spreads awareness of a simple way of fostering integration and supporting language learners – how to be an unnoticeable language teacher. The latter of course does not mean there will be no need for professional E2 teachers; we hope our project has shown how exciting and useful the profession can be and that such courses will attract more people to take up teacher training in the future.
Kokkuvõte. Artikkel käsitleb eesti keele des-, mata- või maks-konverbitarindit sisaldavat komplekslauset. Aluseks on kvalitatiivne uurimus, mille käigus on analüüsitud 1803 konverbitarindit sisaldava lause semantilisi, morfosüntaktilisi ja infostruktuurilisi tunnuseid. Antakse ülevaate sellest, missuguseid inforolle täidab konverbitarind põhilause suhtes ja missuguste teguritega seostub konverbitarindi inforolli varieerumine. Uurimusest selgub konverbitarindi neli põhilist inforolli: 1) raamistav teema, 2) reema taustaosa, 3) fookus ja 4) omaette infoüksus. Konverbitarindi inforoll seostub tihedalt sõnajärjega, nii konverbi kui ka tarindi asukohaga. Konverbialguline tarind toimib tavaliselt omaette infoüksusena, konverbilõpuline ja ühesõnaline tarind aga moodustavad põhilausega ühise infoüksuse. Tarindi inforoll oleneb seejuures tarindi asukohast: konverbilõpuline või ühesõnaline eestarind toimib tavaliselt raamistava teemana, sisetarind reema taustaosana ja järeltarind fookusena. Teistest teguritest seostuvad konverbitarindi inforolliga nt kirjavahemärgistus, põhilause kommunikatiivne tüüp, fookustavad üldlaiendid, konverbi laiendite pikkus ja struktuur ning semantiline funktsioon.
Abstract. Carl Eric Simmul: The informational role of Estonian ‑des, ‑mata and ‑maks converb constructions. This article discusses the complex clauses that entail an Estonian ‑des, ‑mata or ‑maks converb construction, i.e., an infinite construction functioning as a free modifier. The article is based on a study of 1803 sentences entailing a converb construction, and gives an overview of the informational roles of the converb construction as well as the main factors of its variation. The study revealed that the Estonian converb construction has four main informational roles: 1) frame-setting topic, 2) background of the comment, 3) focused part of the comment and 4) distinct information unit. The informational role of a converb construction mainly depends on the word order. A construction starting with a converb normally functions as a distinct information unit. A construction ending with a converb or consisting only of a converb normally forms an unitary information unit together with the main clause. The specific informational role of the construction ending with a converb or consisting only of a converb is dependent on the position of the construction: constructions located before the main clause function as topics, constructions located inside the main clause function as the background part of the comment, constructions located after the main clause function as foci. Other important factors related to the informational role are, for example, the interpunction, the communicative type of the main clause, focusing adverbs, the semantic function of the converb construction, the length and structure of the arguments of the converb construction.
Tarkastelemme tässä artikkelissa vironkielisten suomen oppijoiden osallistumista Suomen kansallisen kielitestin, Yleisten kielitutkintojen, keskitason tutkintoon ja heidän kielitaitoprofiiliaan tutkintotulosten valossa. Vertaamme tuloksia yleiseen tutkintomenestykseen sekä osallistujien taustaan ja pohdimme suomen kielen asemaa oppimisen kohteena vironkielisten näkökulmasta. Analyysimetodina käytämme kuvailevaa tilastollista analyysia sekä tilastollista päättelyä. Tulokset osoittavat, että vironkieliset osallistujat menestyvät tutkinnossa hyvin ja erityisesti ymmärtämistaidot ovat tutkitussa ryhmässä vahvat. Vaikka aiemman tutkimuksen valossa suomen kielen taidon tason onkin nähty riippuvan erityisesti Suomessa asumisen ja suomen opiskelun kestosta, yhä useammat vironkielisistä tutkintoon osallistujista ovat hankkineet suomen kielen taitonsa muutoin kuin Suomessa pysyvästi asumalla tai varsinaiseen suomen kielen opetukseen osallistumalla.
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The aim of this study was to investigate Estonian-speaking Finnish language learners’ participation and test achievement in the intermediate level Finnish language test “National Certificates of Language Proficiency”. We examined test takers’ (n = 60,997) background information and test results in 2012–2020 using test-taking statistics and statistical analysis. During this period altogether 1,634 Estonian-speakers with various learner characteristics, test performance and needs for language assessment took part in the intermediate level Finnish language proficiency tests (YKI 3–4 ≈ CEFR B1–B2). The results show that the vast majority of Estonian-speakers in all background groups reached the proficiency level of an independent language user in all four sub-skills measured (listening and reading comprehension, speaking and writing). Reading comprehension turned out to be the strongest skill with 77.5 % of Estonian-speaking participants at the proficiency level YKI 4 ≈ B2. Although writing was the most demanding skill, 94.2 % of all the Estonian-speaking participants reached the proficiency level 3 (B1) and 46.0 % of them the level 4 (B2) also in writing test. This is almost 60 (level 3) and 40 (level 4) percentage points above the average of the performance level of the other language groups during the same period.
The most important reasons for Estonian-speakers to participate in Finnish language tests were applying for citizenship (60.2 %), a job (37.2 %) or a place of study (27.2 %). Contrary to presumptions, the results indicated some differences in test performance depending on the test-taking reason. Close linguistic relatedness, short geographical and cultural distance and possibilities for studying Finnish both in Finland and in Estonia as well as using Finnish language in everyday life have helped Estonian-speakers to reach a high proficiency level even within a short period of time. However, none of these conditions alone could predict a certain test result.
The possible Baltic origin of the Finnic word *vana âflood, inundationâ is discussed: Baltic *tvana-: Lithuanian tvãnas, tvãnai pl âdeluge of a river, inundation, flood; a large number (of); abscessâetc.
In my article, I examine the moments of gaps or pauses in improvisational scenes used in a Finnish language as a foreign language class. In my research I use different improvisational exercises and techniques (e.g. Johnstone 1981; 1999) when teaching Finnish as a second language. My pedagogical aim is to improve Finnish students’ communicational skills in different kind of improvised settings. My research focuses on teaching Finnish as a foreign language in a Romanian university using improvisation theatre as a method in language teaching. I start from some values of Finnish educational system, such as equity, flexibility, creativity, teacher professionalism and trust (Sahlberg 2007). I compare how these values are conformed within an improvisational frame in a second language class. I present three examples from two different drama courses and I show through these examples how students contemplate with delicate, shameful and radical moments or pauses within their improvisational interaction in the classroom. My aim is to show how the teachers repeatedly accept the students’ ideas based on the rules of improvisation (Johnstone 1981; 1999) and how this positive freedom of improvisation (Peters 2009) shows similarity with the values of the Finnish educational system.
We can all agree that World War II, beyond its military, political or economic coordinates, countless tragedies, convulsions propagated around the world, tensions and dramas often felt to our day, was for all of us a lesson of geography. From this perspective, the invasion of Poland in September 1939 by the German and Soviet troops was a first lesson, continued on another level by the Soviet-Finnish Winter War. The invasion of Norway (and Denmark) by the Germans in April 1940, followed by the allied reaction and the transformation of the Scandinavian states into a theatre of military operations, was monitored with distinct interest in Romania, at political, diplomatic and military level, but also at the level of general perception of a society that was both worried and avid, in the context of the European (for the time being) war, of information on the evolution of the conflict and not only. Names such as Oslo, Narvik, Trondheim, Åndalsnes, Namsos, Bergen, Lillehammer, Stavanger or Tromsø become familiar to the Romanian public. We find, especially in the Romanian media of the time, a luxurious abundance of accounts, commentaries, editorials, telegrams or interviews related to the conduct of military operations in northern Europe, beyond the censorship and restrictions imposed by the conditions of the war. From this perspective, we find it difficult to attempt even to pursue the conflict in Norway in April-May 1940 only in the light of articles in the Romanian press. Central newspapers, in the first place, abound with telegrams that alternately feature views, news, and information from both camps. Inevitably there were various denials, rumors, or what we call today “fake news”, often taken over by the sensational rush, even by big press agencies of the time, without mentioning newspapers in European capitals including Bucharest. For this reason, our objective is to identify and analyze some of the Romanian echoes generated by the invasion of Norway, both in the Romanian media, but also at a diplomatic or military level, in a context in which Romania, as a neutral state, lived its own tensions and worries about its future fate as the war spread across the old continent.
Long-lasting and intense contacts between Finnic and Baltic tribes resulted in the linguistic and material intertwining of the cultures of these two groups, which belong to two different language families. This article concentrates on some interesting connections between both cultures, while attempting to explain and illustrate language contacts using the archaeological record. First, some semantically connected groups of Baltic loanwords in Proto-Finnic will be analysed in order to establish their time and place of borrowing. Next, the Late Bronze Age contacts will be shown to have been the most intensive. The borrowing of the Finnic name Kalev/Kaleva from Baltic kalvis/kalējs ‘smith’, which first was argued in my earlier paper written in Estonian (Lang 2012), is among the evidence for the intensity of these contacts. This is followed by a discussion of bronze work and the casting of bronze rings by these smiths or kalevs, and ends with an examination of the use of these rings as offerings and for taxation.
Kokkuvõte. Valter Lang: Läänemeresoome–balti kontaktid arheoloogiliste ja keeleliste andmete alusel. Algläänemeresoome ja idapoolsete balti hõimude pikaaegsed ja tihedad kontaktid tõid kaasa nende kahe eri keelkonda kuuluva rühma materiaalse ja vaimse kultuuri (sh keele) läbipõimumise. Artikkel keskendub mõningatele huvipakkuvatele seostele mõlema rühma kultuuris, püüdes keelekontakte selgitada ja näitlikustada arheoloogilise andmestikuga. Kõigepealt käsitletakse mõnda balti laensõnade semantiliselt seotud rühma algläänemeresoome keeles eesmärgiga teha kindlaks nende laenamise aeg ja koht. Seejärel iseloomustatakse lähemalt kõige intensiivsemaid, nooremal pronksiajal aset leidnud kontakte, analüüsides sealhulgas võimalust tuletada läänemeresoome Kalev/Kaleva nime balti sõnast kalvis/kalējs tähendusega ‘sepp’, mida autor esmakordselt põhjendas ühes oma varasemas eestikeelses artiklis (Lang 2012). See teema viib lõpuks välja pronksi ja eriti pronksvõrude valmistamiseni nendesamade seppade või kalevite poolt ning nende võrude kasutamiseni ohverdamisel ja maksustamisel.
Märksõnad: arheoloogia ja keel, läänemeresoome-balti kontaktid, pronksiaeg, pronksvõrud pronksi varuna ja ohverdus- ning maksuvahendina
Kubbõvõttõks. Valter Lang: Vāldamiersūomlizt–baltõd siḑmõd arheolōgij ja kīel tīetõkst pūoj pǟl. Vāldamiersūomlizt ja mōgõrpūolizt baltõd sugūd pitkāāigaližist ja sagdižist siḑmist sugīz nänt kǭd īžkiz kīelkub jagūd materiāliz ja vaimliz kultūr (neiīž kīeld) lebbõpaļštimi. Kēra kontsentrīerõb mȯlmõd kultūrõd mingizt interesantõd siḑmõd pǟlõ, kǭļõs seļțõ ja nägțõbõks tīedõ arheologilizt tīetõks abkõks. Amājedsõ sōbõd vaņtõltõd baltõd kēļšti täpīņțõd sõnād mingizt semantilizt gruppõ nänt täpīņțimiz āiga ja kūož vizāks tīemiz pierāst. Sīetagān sōb traktõd amā intensīvõd, nūorimiz brōnza aigizt siḑmõd ilā, vaņtlõs võimizt seļțõ vāldamiersūomõ nimmõ Kalev/Kaleva baltõ sõnāst kalvis/kalējs ‘siepā, kaļāj’, neiku autor um siedā ežmõks pūojtõn ēsti kīelsõ (Lang 2012). Lopāndõksõks vīb se temāt brōnza ja īžkiz brōnza rīnkõd tagāmiz jūr nänt īž kaļājd pūold ja nänt rīnkõd kȭlbatimiz jūr uppõrtõmiz ja maksūd võtāmiz jūs.
This article presents linguistic innovations which are typical of both Courland and Salaca Livonian and are also known in the neighbouring Estonian dialect areas. These innovative features are phonological, morphological, and morphosyntactic. The features are present mainly in western and southwestern Estonia, but also more specifically in areas close to the current western border between Estonia and Latvia. This article discusses the nature and chronology of these linguistic features, taking into account their distribution. Broadly spread common features can be mostly explained as inherent innovations of western Finnic when they are not shown to be caused by contacts with Germanic or Baltic languages. Features which are spread in the immediate vicinity of the former Livonian language area can be classified as a Livonian substrate in sub-dialects of western and insular Estonian.
Kokkuvõte. Patrick O’Rourke, Karl Pajusalu: Liivi jooned eesti murretes. Artikkel käsitleb keeleuuendusi, mis on iseloomulikud nii Kuramaa kui ka Salatsi liivi keelele ja on piiratult tuntud ka eesti murretes. Vaadeldakse fonoloogilisi, morfoloogilisi ja morfosüntaktilisi jooni. Need keelendid esinevad peamiselt Lääne- ja Edela-Eestis, eriti aga Eesti ja Läti praeguse läänepoolse piiri lähedal. Artiklis käsitletakse keelejoonte olemust ja kronoloogiat, võttes arvesse nende levikut. Laiemalt levinud liivipäraseid jooni saab enamasti pidada läänepoolse läänemeresoome omapärasteks arenguteks juhul, kui need muutused ei ole põhjustatud kontaktidest germaani ja balti keeltega. Varasema liivi keeleala vahetus läheduses tuntud jooned on aga tõlgendatavad liivi keele substraadiks lääne-eesti ja saarte murrakutes.
Märksõnad: liivi keel, eesti keel, keeleajalugu, keelekontaktid, substraat
Kubbõvõttõks. Patrick O’Rourke, Karl Pajusalu: Līvõ tīedõd ēsti kīel mūrdis. Kēra vaņțlõb kīel ūdstõkši, mis at eņtšizt nei Kurmǭ äbku Salāts līvõ kīelõn ja at tundtõd sūorantõd vīțõ ka ēsti kīel mūrdis. Vaņțõltõd sōbõd fonolōgilizt, morfolōgilizt ja morfosintaktilizt nǟdõkst. Ne tulbõd jeddõ pǟažālistiz Vežgõr- ja Lǟnd-Ēstimǭl, amā jemīņ Ēstimǭ ja Lețmǭ paldīņiz lǟndpūoliz rubīž ležgõl. Laigāmõld laiglõnd līvõpierrizt nǟdõkst võibõd sūrimiz jag vȱlda vežgõrpūoliz vāldamiersūomõ eņtšvīțizt kazāndõkst siz ku nänt pūojõks äb ūotõ kontaktõd germān agā balt kīeldkõks. Līvõ kīel jedlõmiz teritorij kūoḑis ležglits tundtõd nǟdõkst at tulktõb līvõ kīel substrātõks ēsti kīel vežgõr ja kǭlad mūrdis.
Kokkuvõte. Funktsionaalsemantiline väli on objektide klassifitseerimise ja võrdlemise universaalne vahend, mida saab kasutada nii ühe keele piires kui ka tüpoloogilises plaanis. Et välja konstrueerimise aluseks on loomulikud mõisteseosed, mitte grammati lised kategooriad ja lausesüntaks, siis sobib väli liigituste loomiseks, sh artiklis kirjel datud modaaltähenduste semantiline hierarhia, võimaldades täpsustada ja seletada ka mõningaid traditsioonilise keelekäsitluse raskuspunkte, näiteks tõeväärtushinnangu ambivalentsust. Modaalsuse välja konstrueerimiseks olen valinud tautoloogiliste ehk suletud ringide meetodi (ld idem per idem) ja semantilised hierarhiad. Semantilistes määrangutes võimaldab tähenduskomponentide lähedus-kaugus kombata leksikaalsemantilis(t)e rühma(de) piire, konstrueerida leksikaalsemantilisi mikrovälju ning neid omavahel siduda. Mõisteseoste üldistamisel olen modaalsuse funktsionaalsemantilise välja puhul kasutanud dialektilise loogika seadusi, mis aitavad leida objekti olulisi tunnuseid. Paigutatuna süntagmaatilisele ja paradigmaatilisele teljele, saab tunnuste ristumisest struktuur, mis on sobiv modaalliigituste loomiseks ja objekti süsteemseks kirjeldamiseks. Artiklis toon näiteid, mille põhjal saab järeldada, et ühe või teise modaaltähenduse väljendamisel on vene ja eesti keeles kasutusel lekseemide, vormide ning süntaktiliste struktuuride kindlad kooskasutusmallid, mille leksikaalsemantiline ja morfosüntaktiline varieerumine on piiratud. Keeliti esineb siin osalist või täielikku lahknevust, analoogiat ja kokkulangevusi.
Abstract. Pille Eslon: The functional-semantic field as the basis for classifying modal meanings and comparing languages. The functionalsemantic field is a universal means for object classification and comparison that can be used both within a single language and typologically. Because the field is constructed using natural links between concepts, and not grammatical categories or sentence syntax, it lends itself to establishing classifications, including a semantic hierarchy of modal meanings discussed in the article. It allows us to clarify and elaborate on certain complexities of the construct of language, e.g. the ambivalence of the value judgement of truth. In order to establish and describe the links between concepts within a functional-semantic field, current research has resorted to lexicographical sources, corpuses and grammars of the Estonian and Russian languages. For the construction of the field of modality, the method of tautologic or closed circles (in Latin: idem per idem) was used. The proximity or distance of the components of meaning allows for the description of the bounds of lexicosemantic groups, for construction of lexicosemantic micro-fields and for their integration. Generalisation of conceptual links is based on the laws of dialectic logic that helps to identify the significant features of the object. Placed on syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes, intersection of such features produces a structure that is suitable for creating modal classifications and for a systematic description of the object. The article highlights the fact that while expressing modal meaning, the Estonian and Russian languages make use of particular adjaceny patterns of lexemes, structures and syntactic structures that have limited lexicosemantic and morphosyntactic variability.
Keywords: functional-semantic field; modality; Russian; Estonian
Drawing on my experience as General Editor of the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, as well as my own research interest in the Livonian language, the situation of Livonian is here compared with that of some other threatened languages of Europe, most notably Manx Gaelic, spoken on the Isle of Man in the British Isles, which presents some interesting parallels with the situation of Livonian.
Kokkuvõte. Christopher Moseley: Liivi – Euroopa ohustatuim keel? Artiklis võrdleb autor oma kogemuse põhjal UNESCO maailma ohus olevate keelte atlase peatoimetajana liivi keele seisundit mitmete teiste Euroopas ohustatud keelte omaga. Võrdlus peamiselt Mani saare gaeli keelega (Manx) toob esile huvitavaid paralleele liivi keele olukorraga.
Märksõnad: liivi keel, Mani gaeli keel (Manx), ohustatud keeled, keele revitalisatsioon, ortograafilised normid
Kubbõvõttõks. Christopher Moseley: Līvõ kēļ – Eirōp amā ädātõd kēļ? Sīes kēras autor ītlõb līvõ kīel pīlõkst mitsmõd munt ädātõd kīeldkõks Eirōpõs. Sǟdlimi gǟl kīeldkõks, mis rõkāndõb Man kǭla pǟl, nägțõb interesantidi paralelidi līvõ kīel vȯlmizõks.
Johannes Gutslaff oli Urvaste koguduse pastor (1641–1656), kes on läinud eesti kirjakeele ajalukku esimese lõunaeesti grammatika „Observationes grammaticae circa linguam Esthonicam” (1648) koostajana. Artiklis on võetud vaatluse alla tema keeleõpetuse saksa-eesti sõnastikuosa eesti vasted ja põhitähelepanu on koondatud alamsaksa laensõnade leidumisele. Väljasõelutud sõnad on rühmitatud vastavalt sellele, kas saksa märksõna tähendust on eesti keeles edasi antud alamsaksa laenu või omasõna abil. Jõutakse järeldusele, et Gutslaffi sõnakasutus on üheks indikaatoriks alamsaksa laensõnade tulekul eesti keelde. Veidi üle poole eesti sõnavastetest moodustavad alamsaksa laensõnad, millega on saksa märksõnade tähendust edasi andnud nii Gutslaff kui ka tema kaasaegsed. Teise poole moodustavad sellised eesti vasted, mille puhul Gutslaffi kaasaegsed eelistasid alamsaksa laensõnu, tema ise aga kas omasõnu või varasematest keelekontaktidest pärit laene. Silmas pidades Gutslaffi töö- ja elukohta Urvastes, on need omasõnavasted rühmitatud murdeleviku alusel: ühed on registreeritud eeskätt põhjaeesti murretest või laiemaltki, teised on iseloomulikud lõunaeesti murdeile, iseäranis Võru murdele. Lõpuks esitatakse vasted, mis on tõenäoliselt Gutslaffi enese loodud.
About Low German loanwords on the basis of Johannes Gutslaff’s grammar. The present paper gives an overview of the Estonian equivalents in the German-Estonian vocabulary of the first South Estonian grammar “Observationes grammaticae circa linguam Esthonicam” (1648), with emphasis on probable Low German loanwords. The entries have been selected and grouped according to which equivalent the author has given them in Estonian: either a Low German loanword or an Estonian word. In the latter case, we have tried to differentiate between dialect (mainly Võru) words and Gutslaff’s own word creation. A conclusion is made that Gutslaff’s word usage is one of the indicators of how Low German borrowings came into Estonian.
Artiklis tulevad vaatluse alla 17. sajandi kiriklike teoste tõlkija ja keelenormi kujundaja Heinrich Stahli tekstides kasutatud kaheksa haruldast tüvisõna ja seitse tuletist, mis (1) esinevad tema teostes vaid ühe korra (nn hapax legomenon’id), (2) esinevad põhjaeesti kirjakeeles esimest korda just Stahli teostes, (3) ei ole tänapäeva kirjakeeles sellises vormis ja/või tähenduses kasutusel, (4) ei ole otselaenud (alam)- saksa keelest. Käsitluse eesmärgiks on välja tuua Stahli haruldast sõnavara, mis pole tänapäeva eesti keeles enam kas tüve, moodustusviisi või tähenduse poolest läbipaistev. Niisugused lekseemid võimaldavad täpsemat pilguheitu Stahli teoste eripärasele sõnavarale ja selle kasutamise motiividele. Artiklis käsitletud tüvisõnad peegeldavad arhailist sõnavarakihti, mis on enamjaolt rahvakeelne ja võib osaliselt pärineda varasematest, Stahli-eelsetest allikatest. Tuletised avavad lisaks ka mehhanisme, kuidas Stahl on kasutanud teksti vajadustest lähtudes produktiivseid tuletusvõimalusi või toetunud analoogiamallidele. Selline täpseid esinemissagedusi arvestav uurimus on võimalikuks saanud pärast Stahli tekstide korpuse lemmatiseeritud kuju valmimist 2013. aastal.
Rare words from the works of Heinrich Stahl. The article takes a look at 8 stem words and 7 derivations used in the works of Heinrich Stahl, the 17th century translator of religious texts and shaper of language norms. The stem words and derivations discussed in the article (1) only occur once in his texts, (2) first appear in Literary North-Estonian in Stahl’s texts, (3) are not used in Modern Estonian in the same form and/or meaning, (4) are not direct loans from (Low) German. These lexemes reveal the peculiarity of the lexicon of Stahl’s works. Because of their rarity, the lemmatising of such units while coding the corpus of Stahl’s texts has been problematic. These archaic words are not transparent in stem, form or meaning in Modern Estonian. The lexical stems discussed in the article reflect an archaic layer of the lexicon which is mostly vernacular and may partly originate in earlier, pre-Stahl sources. Derivations, in addition to revealing archaic lexicon, also reveal the mechanisms of how Stahl used productive derivation or analogy patterns depending on the demands of the text.
Abstract. An algorithm for computing ice drift from pairs of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images covering a common area has been developed at FMI. The algorithm has been developed based on the C-band SAR data over the Baltic Sea. It is based on phase correlation in two scales (coarse and fine) with some additional constraints. The algorithm has been running operationally in the Baltic Sea from the beginning of 2011, using Radarsat-1 ScanSAR wide mode and Envisat ASAR wide swath mode data. The resulting ice drift fields are publicly available as part of the MyOcean EC project. The SAR based ice drift vectors have been compared to the drift vectors from drifter buoys in the Baltic Sea during the first operational season and also these validation results are shown in this paper. Also some navigationally useful sea ice quantities, which can be derived from ice drift vector fields, are presented.
Abstract:‘Europe’ and ‘Russia’ have historically been the most remarkable landmarks, playing geopolitical, cultural, and moral guide-role in the construction of national collective identities in the Central Eastern European countries, including Lithuania. This ‘civilizational identity’ helped to unite Lithuanian political elites as well as society towards the direction to West and Europe after the collapse of Soviet Union. The question article addresses is: does the factual belonging to the European Union after the 1st May, 2004 give the impulse to re-define ‘Europe’ and ‘Russia’ as the old essentials of collective identity of Lithuanians? The article presents the research based on monitoring of national public discourse (five Lithuanian national newspapers) in 2004-2007, i.e. enjoying three years of membership in the European Union and NATO.The main result is that the role of Russia in the Lithuanian collective identity has not changed and still continues to play the major threat. The membership in the European Union and NATO has not solved Lithuanian security problem. According to the perceived threat, Russia has started to penetrate softly into Lithuania’s economy (especially energy sector) and has silently begun to make an impact to the domestic political parties and political elite. The traditional role of Europe, however, is slowly but gradually shifting from mythical ‘Paradise’ image to more critical understandings about divided Europe and selfish member-states. Already being in the EU and NATO, Lithuania should balance sometimes unfriendly westerners’ reluctance to understand the situation and help against Russia with the economic power that Russia uses as a political instrument against Lithuania on the international arena, as well as in domestic politics. This results in the feelings of „lost and forgotten” between Europe and Russia. Nevertheless, Europe continues to earn a positive meaning in national collective identity of Lithuanians, but all these trends in public discourse show that the state and society have only just started to realize its interests and learn how to handle the major challenges through the cooperation within the European Union, i.e. to build integrational European identity.
This state of the art review aims at discussing the potential relevance of Finno-Ugric languages in the larger context of second language research. Key results received in the studies conducted in the field of Finno-Ugric languages as second languages are introduced, and some interim conclusions based on them are made. The main areas in focus are cross-linguistic influence, forms and constructions, second language interaction, and motivation, identities and integration. Furthermore, some future lines of investigation are suggested for the researchers of the field. The research activities are recommended to get more closely bound to the internationally established or emerging paradigms, and research activities involving several Finno-Ugric languages are strongly encouraged. To promote international co-operation, some existing gaps or obvious needs for research are pointed out, and preliminary research initiatives are made. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/LV22.14
This paper outlines a case study of language choices between three Indian immigrant families residing in three different countries of Europe – France, Norway, and Finland. The issue is to focus on the language practices of the immigrant members when the verbal repertoire is composed of several languages owing to truncated competencies. What are the languages at their disposal and how do they exploit their truncated multilingual repertoire within different social settings? The sociolinguistic and ethnographic empirical observations have yielded useful information on the multiple usages of languages by our participants. This paper reveals how several languages are handled in the daily life with limited or high competence in each of them displaying the intricacies of truncated multilingual repertoire. The latter has been found playing a pivotal role in situating language practices with different segments of the society
The paper explores plurilingual competence in respect to language proficiency, language education and pluri- and multilingualism. The notion of communicative competence was introduced by Hymes (1972) as a reaction to chomskyan view of language as an autonomous system. Hymes’ notion of communicative competence originally included plurilingualism. The concept of communicative competence was quickly adopted to applied linguistics but the idea of a linguistic repertoire consist-ing of the competencies of linguistic varieties was not imported to SLA or language testing. The Hymesian perspective to plurilingualism as an essential dimension of communicative competence was revived in the Common European Framework (CEFR). However, the practice of applying the CEFR has mostly neglected the dimension on plurilingualism and plurilingual competence. The focus in the use of the CEFR has been on the different areas of language skills within one single language at a time, while the application of plurilingual practices has gained very little attention. The Hymesian notion of communicative competence has lived on in the sociolinguistic research tradition, especially within interactional sociolinguistics. The present paper relates the notion of plurilingual competence to its hymesian origin, to recent trends in plurilingual and pluricultural education, and to the sociolinguistic study of style and linguistic variation in multilingual communities. The article uses Finnish L2 data to show how plurilingual competence is used as an interactional resource. From the perspective of language learning, plurilingual compe-tence enables speakers with different linguistic backgrounds to use their shared linguistic repertoire in order to ensure smooth interaction and achieve mutual understanding
<p>The 20th century saw the Soviet and Francoist regimes enforce their respective ideologies in Estonia and the Catalan-speaking territories in Spain. In both cases, the autochthonous language suffered under the stringent control of the mechanisms of censorship and repression. In fact, Soviet and Spanish leaders—representing both extremes of the political spectrum—tried to replace the use of the autochthonous language in many sociolinguistic domains with their own—Russian and (Castilian) Spanish—as these languages embodied the ideologies and the new orders that they wished to establish. This paper compares and contrasts the diverse methods of control over language carried out in Estonia and the Catalan-speaking areas of Spain in order to demonstrate that highly centralised multilingual states—whatever their political ideology—can make use of surprisingly similar means of control, ultimately depriving local linguistic communities of the ability to use and develop their own language.</p><p>DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/ERYa6.16</p>