ABSTRACT Flood loss mapping is one of the essential prerequisites for urban flood assessment studies to identify areas vulnerable to floods and to make cities safe and resilient. This study develops a neuro‐fuzzy loss model to generate flood loss maps, classifying loss levels into several categories ranging from no loss to severe loss. Several key inputs, including the location of houses, as well as flood depth and velocity, were considered in the loss model. Two major flood events were simulated using HEC‐RAS 2D: one (event 1) for model development and calibration using the roughness coefficient, and another (event 2) for validating and applying the proposed flood loss model. Subsequently, the outputs of the hydrodynamic model for event 2 were integrated with the data‐driven loss model to create a flood loss map for the selected residential area. According to the results, the ANFIS‐based method can classify flood losses with more than 80% accuracy, demonstrating its reliability as a tool for sustainable urban planning. The proposed model generates qualitative flood loss maps, which are vital prerequisites for urban planning aimed at enhancing city sustainability. This novel method can identify both vulnerable and sustainable areas for further urban development by assessing potential flood losses in the context of regional loss assessment studies.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Disasters and engineering
Appalachian History Series Setting the Scene On the South Fork Holston River just southeast of Bristol, Tennessee, the Tennessee Valley Authority built South Holston Dam to curb destructive flooding and to supply hydropower in the mid-twentieth century. The project impounded a long, slender reservoir that reaches about 24 miles into Virginia, and it became the upstream anchor of TVA's Holston River system.
Patrick Painter, Kathryn Semmens, Keri Maxfield
et al.
ABSTRACT Flooding is a disruptive and devastating natural hazard for communities all around the world. To combat the negative effects of flooding, it has become a global priority to implement and research flood early warning systems (FEWS). However, previous research did not comprehensively examine both the technological and social dimensions of FEWS nor the knowledge of their availability and status around the world. To address these gaps, this paper completes a narrative review and synthesizes best practices in FEWS warning and system design, and introduces a “FEWS Around the World” repository which catalogs 3–4 examples per region across six continents. Our analysis shows that while most FEWS include design features outlined in the literature such as timeliness, human capacity, and integration, fewer implement novel components related to impact‐based warnings, participatory science, bottom‐up approaches, advanced technology, and maintaining a preparedness fund, highlighting gaps and opportunities for improvement. Examples demonstrate how these characteristics manifest in diverse contexts, from community‐based systems in Nepal to AI‐driven systems like Google's Flood Hub. By bridging design principles with observed global practices, this paper is designed to aid researchers, practitioners, and communities in people‐centered FEWS development, implementation, and operation, improving resilient flood risk management.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Disasters and engineering
Abstract Flood susceptibility mapping (FSM) is crucial for effective flood risk management, particularly in flood‐prone regions like Pakistan. This study addresses the need for accurate and scalable FSM by systematically evaluating the performance of 14 machine learning (ML) models in high‐risk areas of Pakistan. The novelty lies in the comprehensive comparison of these models and the use of explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) techniques. We employed XAI to identify significant conditioning factors for flood susceptibility at both the model training and prediction stages. The models were assessed for both accuracy and scalability, with specific focus on computational efficiency. Our findings indicate that LGBM and XGBoost are the top performers in terms of accuracy, with XGBoost also excelling in scalability, achieving a prediction time of ~18 s compared to LGBM's 22 s and random forest's 31 s. The evaluation framework presented is applicable to other flood‐prone regions and highlights that LGBM is superior for accuracy‐focused applications, while XGBoost is optimal for scenarios with computational constraints. The findings of this study can assist in accurate FSM in different regions and can also assist in scaling up the analysis to a larger geographical region which could assist in better decision‐making and informed policy production for flood risk management.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Disasters and engineering
Estuaries are irreplaceable ecological habitats and the primary deposition areas for sediment and pollutants from rivers. However, many estuaries are subject to an elevated risk of soil erosion owing to the increasing occurrence of flood events and reduced sediment supply. Soil erosion resistance in estuaries, as one of the most important parameters to assess and model soil erosion in estuaries, remains unclear. In this study, soil samples were collected from eight estuaries in Laizhou Bay, China, to characterize soil erosion resistance using soil erodibility (Kd) and soil critical shear stress (τc); additionally, the controlling soil properties were identified using a partial least-squares regression (PLSR) model. The Kd of the eight estuaries ranged from 15.21 to 772.08 cm3/N s. The τc of the eight estuaries ranged from 0.33 to 3.35 Pa. The results of the PLSR analysis indicated that the increased soil electrical conductivity at 25 °C water temperature (EC25), exchangeable sodium (Na+), and clay content contributed to high Kd values, whereas increased exchangeable calcium (Ca2+) and exchangeable potassium (K+) levels were correlated with low Kd values. The τc was negatively correlated with clay content, EC25, exchangeable magnesium (Mg2+), silt content, and total porosity and positively correlated with sand content, K+, and soil bulk density. The Di River estuary exhibited the highest EC25 and lowest Ca2+ among all the estuaries, resulting in the largest Kd. The Bailang River estuary exhibited the highest τc owing to its having the lowest Mg2+ content. These findings indicate that soil erosion resistance is not determined by any individual soil property; future studies should consider the interactions among the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Harbors and coast protective works. Coastal engineering. Lighthouses
Sediment flux of many rivers has been significantly reduced due to human activities caused by economic development, leading to increasingly severe riverbed degradation. To prevent riverbed degradation, grade control structures (GCSs) have been widely applied in degrading channels. Existing studies have not provided a good understanding of the effects of GCSs on flow characteristics and bed morphology in degrading channels, limiting the management of degrading channels. A series of flume tests with no sediment supply are conducted to investigate the effects of GCSs on upstream water levels and riverbed morphology in degrading channels. The experimental results indicate that: (1) in the initial stage of degradation, the water surface slope in the backwater reach is linearly and negatively correlated with the GCS-height Froude number, based on the average flow velocity upstream of the backwater reach due to GCS and the height of GCS; (2) the effective protection bed length upstream of GCS is approximately equal to the length of the reach where the flow velocity is less than the critical velocity for sediment motion in the backwater zone; (3) for sequential GCSs, the effective protection bed length will decrease if GCS is located in the backwater reach of the downstream GCS. A semi-analytical calculation method of the effective protection length and equilibrium bed profile upstream of GCS in degrading channels is proposed based on the critical condition of sediment motion and weir flow formulas. The computed values by the proposed calculation method agree well with the experimental data of the present study.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Harbors and coast protective works. Coastal engineering. Lighthouses
ABSTRACT In synergy with hydraulic works, hydro‐meteorological forecasts and related preventive protection measures are effective tools for mitigating flood risk. Nevertheless, the performance and reliability of coupled prediction systems in real‐time operations are often influenced by errors in meteorological and hydrological models and their interactions. The paper discusses the source and magnitude of such combined errors, analyzing the functionality of a warning system to predict river floods in northern Italian catchments. The proposed flood alert tool consists of a hydrological model, driven by atmospheric forcings from various weather models and ground observations. This study aims to analyze the sources of flood forecasting errors in small urbanized river basins by disentangling the uncertainties in precipitation and discharge predictions. The results emphasize the relationship between quantitative precipitation and peak discharge forecast errors during convective and stratiform events, with a prevalent tendency toward underestimation of peak flows. The paper highlights the added value and limitations of the real‐time multi‐model approach as an effective compromise amidst the wide spread of model forecasts. This assessment is based on 4 years of operational simulations (2019–2022) on the river Seveso, where a municipal monitoring system for flood alerts (MOCAP) has also been implemented to support local civil protection procedures.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Disasters and engineering
Pedro Martin‐Moreta, Oscar Herrera‐Granados, Reuben Bourne
et al.
ABSTRACT Natural flood management (NFM) uses natural features and processes to manage flood risk. Although natural processes in river flow are well known, their use to manage floods has been only deeply analyzed since recent years, and the hydraulic behavior and performance of some measures is not yet fully understood. Leaky woody dams (LWD) are one example of the application of NFM, which is very complex to understand, and many uncertainties are still unresolved. In practical applications, the effect of LWD is modeled with different assumptions (Manning's n, geometry changes, porosity, etc.), but none of them represent the real physics of the problem. This paper presents novel lab experiments that attempt to simulate LWD in a river channel. The experiments were developed in a straight research flume. The performance of the LWD in terms of outflow capacity and the effect in terms of increase in water levels upstream and velocities downstream have been analyzed. The orifice + weir model has been proposed as the more realistic model to simulate the flow through LWD, and empirical coefficients of discharge for applications in analytical methods and in numerical models have been obtained. The results help to understand the hydraulic behavior of LWD, and the coefficients of discharge obtained can be useful to reduce uncertainties in numerical modeling for practical applications.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Disasters and engineering
The current research aimed to evaluate the severity and distribution of soil erosion in a Swat district, Pakistan, which is vital for sustainable land management and conservation efforts. This study focused on key parameters affecting soil erosion: the length factor (L), slope factor (S), crop management factor (C), rainfall erosivity factor (R), soil erodibility factor (K), and support practice factor (P). Various parameters were quantified via RS data from Sentinel-2 imagery and processed with geographical information system (GIS) tools. The values of these parameters ranged from 0.00% to 38.86%, 0 to 1, 547 to 773 MJ·mm·ha−1·year−1, 0.24–0.33 MJ·mm·ha−1·year−1 and 0.10–1.00, respectively. On the basis of these estimates, the total annual potential soil loss was approximately 173,816 t·ha−1·year−1 with extreme erosion rates exceeding 10,000 t·ha−1·year−1 in specific locations. The study categorized the soil erosion risk into five classes, ranging from very low to extreme, enabling the identification of areas requiring immediate attention and intervention. The findings of this study provide valuable insight for land management and conservation planning while also contributing to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) by identifying areas where soil erosion poses a significant threat to food security. The current study underscores the importance of addressing soil erosion to promote sustainable land use and conservation strategies, ensuring long-term agricultural productivity and environmental health.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Harbors and coast protective works. Coastal engineering. Lighthouses
Kate Sherren, H. M. T. Rahman, Patricia Manuel
et al.
Abstract Nature‐based coastal adaptation is a subset of nature‐based solutions that has to this point focused on the materiality of managing coastal risks: what our coastal protections are made of or where we put things that are in the way of harm. In our collaborative interdisciplinary work, we have been reimagining nature‐based coastal adaptation to start with first principles: how we think about the coast and what makes a good coastal life. In a nature‐based approach our shared sense of what is good and possible, also known as the social imaginary, needs shifting before any physical material. This paper presents a new nested framework for thinking about nature‐based coastal adaptation using five words starting with R: Reimagine, Reserve, Relocate, Restore, Reinforce. We use the nature‐based adaptation option of managed dyke realignment in Bay of Fundy agricultural dykelands to illustrate the utility of the framework in practice but assert its more generic applicability.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Disasters and engineering
مقدمه
رودخانهها، بهعنوان منابع حیاتی طبیعت و پایههای اصلی توسعه پایدار شناخته میشوند. لذا، کمیت و کیفیت آب رودخانهها جز پارامترهای ارزشمند محسوب میشوند. افزایش فعالیتهای کشاورزی و صنعتی، باعث کاهش کیفیت منابع آب در بسیاری از نقاط شده است. تخلیه فاضلاب، زباله و کودهای شیمیایی در روستاهای حاشیه رودخانهها از مهمترین منابع آلودگی کیفیت آب به شمار میرود. حجم ورود پسابهای شهری و کشاورزی به این رودخانه، باعث افزایش مقادیر آلایندهها شده، بهطوریکه در بازه سالهای 1372 تا انتهای سال 1396، میانگین آلایندههای موجود در ایستگاه ورند برای سه آلاینده مواد جامد محلول، کلر و سدیم بهترتیب برابر 507.49، 2.16 و 2.47 بوده است. بنابراین، برآورد دقیق پارامترهای کیفیت آب، یک نیاز اساسی برای مدیریت کیفیت آب، سلامت انسان، مصرف عمومی و مصارف خانگی است.
مواد و روشها
حوضه تجن، با مساحتی در حدود 4147.22 کیلومتر مربع دارای میانگین دبی رودخانه و بارندگی سالانه بهترتیب 20 متر مکعب بر ثانیه و 539 میلیمتر است. بیشترین و کمترین ارتفاع حوضه، بهترتیب 3728 و 26 متر گزارش شده است. فعالیتهای مختلفی نظیر کشاورزی و سدسازی در این رودخانه صورت میگیرد. در این پژوهش، از تلفیق دو مدل برنامهنویسی بیان ژن (GEP) و شبکه عصبی مصنوعی (ANN)، با یکی از الگوریتم پیشپردازش داده بهنام EMD برای تخمین یکی از پارامتر مهم کیفیت آب به نام مواد جامد محلول (TDS) استفاده شد. بدین منظور، در این پژوهش، برای مدلسازی و برآورد مقادیر مواد جامد محلول از چندین داده کیفی شامل سدیم، کلسیم، منیزیم، سولفات بیکربنات، سولفوریک اسید و کلر که در بازه سالهای 1372 تا انتهای سال 1396 در ایستگاه ورند اندازهگیری شده، استفاده شد.
نتایج و بحث
در ابتدا، نتایج حاصل از دادههای مشاهداتی در طول مدت نمونه برداری نشان دادند که مقادیر TDS در حدود 80 درصد از نمونهها در بازه 300 تا 600 میلی گرم بر لیتر بوده که بیانگر کیفیت خوب آب این رودخانه بوده است. برای مقایسه عملکرد مدلهای مستقل و ترکیبی برای تخمین پارامترهای کیفی رودخانه در مراحل آموزش و آزمون، شاخصهای آماری ضریب همبستگی (R)، ریشه میانگین مربعات خطا (RMSE)، میانگین انحراف خطا (MBE)، ضریب نش (NSE)، تابع هدف (OBJ) و نسبت RSD، استفاده شدند. نتایج حاصل از این مطالعه نشان داد که مدل ترکیبی حاصل از برنامهنویسی بیان ژن و تجزیه مود تجربی (EMD-GEP) توانست با کمترین خطا ( 0.23=RSD و 24.41=RMSE) عملکرد بالاتری را در مقایسه با سایر مدلها مانند مدل GEP ( 0.44 =RSD و RMSE=47.27) در تخمین این پارامتر کیفی آب داشته باشد. علاوهبر این، مدل ترکیبی حاصل از شبکه عصبی مصنوعی و تجزیه مود تجربی (EMD-ANN) با 36.64 =RMSE و 0.95=R بعد از EMD-GEP، در رتبه دوم قرار گرفت. مطابق نتایج حاصل از تابع هدف برای هریک از مدلها، مدل EMD-GEP دارای مقادیر تابع هدف کمتری (15.92=OBJ) نسبت به سایر مدلها در مدلسازی مواد جامد محلول است. درحالیکه، بیشترین مقدار تابع هدف (29.34=OBJ) متعلق به مدلGEP است.
نتیجهگیری
بهمنظور، تخمین مواد جامد محلول در رودخانه تجن، از روشهای ANN و GEP در این پژوهش استفاده شد. سپس، برای تقویت برآوردها از الگوریتمهای تجزیه مود تجربی برای پیشپردازش دادههای سری زمانی استفاده شد. نتایج بهدست آمده از مدلهای هوشمند تلفیقی با استفاده از شاخصهای آماری خطا، مانند ضریب همبستگی، ریشه میانگین مربعات خطا، مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفت. نتایج نشان داد که روش EMD، باعث تقویت مدلهای ANN و GEP، در راستای تخمین این پارامتر کیفی آب در ایستگاه ورند شدهاند. بهطوریکه مدلهای ترکیبی حاصل از GEP و ANN توانست 48.35 درصد و 14.02 درصد خطای RMSE را بهترتیب در مقایسه با دو مدل مستقل GEP و ANN کاهش دهد.
General. Including nature conservation, geographical distribution, River protective works. Regulation. Flood control
Abstract Although conceptually attractive, the use of ensemble data assimilation methods, such as the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF), can be constrained by intensive computational requirements. In such cases, the ensemble optimal interpolation scheme (EnOI), which works on a single model run instead of ensemble evolution, may offer a sub‐optimal alternative. This study explores different approaches of dynamic covariance matrix generation from predefined state vector repositories for assimilating synthetic water level observations with the EnOI scheme into a distributed rainfall‐runoff‐inundation model. Repositories are first created by storing open loop state vectors from the simulation of past flood events. The vectors are later sampled during the assimilation step, based on their closeness to the model forecast (calculated using vector norm). Results suggest that the dynamic EnOI scheme is inferior to the EnKF, but can improve upon the deterministic simulation depending on the sampling approach and the repository used. Observations can also be used for sampling to increase the background spread when the system noise is large. A richer repository is required to reduce analysis degradation, but increases the computation cost. This can be resolved by using a sliced repository consisting of only the vectors with norm close to the model forecast.
River protective works. Regulation. Flood control, Disasters and engineering
A control scheme for the multi-gated perimeter traffic flow control problem of cities is presented. The proposed scheme determines feasible and optimally distributed input flows for the various gates located at the periphery of a protected network. A parsimonious model is employed to describe the traffic dynamics of the protected network. To describe traffic dynamics outside of the protected area, the state-space model is augmented with additional state variables to account for vehicle queues at store-and-forward origin links at the periphery. The perimeter flow control problem is formulated as a convex optimisation problem with finite horizon, and constrained control and state variables. It aims to equalise the relative queues at origin links and to maintain the vehicle accumulation in the protected network around a desired set point, while the system's throughput is maximised. For real-time control, the optimal control problem is embedded in a rolling-horizon scheme using the current state of the system as the initial state as well as predicted demand flows at entrance links. Furthermore, practical flow allocation policies for single-region perimeter control without explicitly considering entrance link dynamics are presented. These policies allocate a global perimeter-ordered flow to candidate gates at the periphery of a protected network by taking into account the different geometric characteristics of origin links. The proposed flow allocation policies are then benchmarked against the multi-gated perimeter flow control. A study is carried out for a 2.5 square mile protected network area of San Francisco, CA, including fifteen gates of different geometric characteristics. The results have showed that the proposed scheme is able to manage excessive queues outside of the protected network and to optimally distribute the input flows, which confirms its efficiency and equity properties.
Certifying the safety of nonlinear systems, through the lens of set invariance and control barrier functions (CBFs), offers a powerful method for controller synthesis, provided a CBF can be constructed. This paper draws connections between partial feedback linearization and CBF synthesis. We illustrate that when a control affine system is input-output linearizable with respect to a smooth output function, then, under mild regularity conditions, one may extend any safety constraint defined on the output to a CBF for the full-order dynamics. These more general results are specialized to robotic systems where the conditions required to synthesize CBFs simplify. The CBFs constructed from our approach are applied and verified in simulation and hardware experiments on a quadrotor.
AbstractWhile large dams provide society with many benefits, there are many environmental trade‐offs. One trade‐off of dam installation is the morphologic changes that ensue in the downstream channel. Channel widening due to streambank erosion is a common response to flow regulation (FR), but dominant erosion processes and rates have rarely been evaluated downstream of dams. This case study investigates how a 75‐year‐old flood control dam has affected downstream bank erosion on the Lower Smoky Hill River, located in central Kansas, USA. A one‐dimensional hydraulic, sediment transport, and bank erosion model was used to assess changes in erosion processes and rates with and without FR up to 86 river km downstream of the dam. The model showed that toe erosion was the dominant bank erosion process for both with and without FR scenarios. While toe erosion rates were significantly higher (α < 0.05) under the without FR scenario, more days of toe erosion occurred under the with FR scenario. More days of toe erosion are attributed to the change in the flow regime, with moderate flows (between 5% and 40% daily exceedance probability) increasing and hydrograph rise and fall rates decreasing since dam installation. Furthermore, it was observed that pioneer riparian vegetation may drown out during long duration, high‐flow events brought on by FR, amplifying erosion rates. These results provide broader insight into morphological responses to flood control dams, highlighting the effect changes in flow regime can have on downstream channel morphology and identifying major challenges in managing streambank erosion downstream of dams.
امروزه اثرات تغییر اقلیم در چرخه هیدرولوژی حوضه و اثر در تغییرات رژیم هیدرولوژیکی، موضوع مهم پژوهشی شده است. عموما برای تعیین کمیت تاثیر تغییرات اقلیم بر رژیم هیدرولوژیکی، نتایج مدلهای گردش عمومی جو (GCMs) همراه با مدلهای هیدرولوژیکی استفاده میشوند. در این تحقیق، دادههای روزانه دماهای کمینه و بیشینه، بارش و ساعات آفتابی ایستگاه سینوپتیک شیراز با استفاده از مدل آماری LARSE_WG6.0 شبیهسازی شد و پس از اطمینان از کارایی این مدل در شبیهسازی متغیرهای هواشناسی مذکور در حوزه آبخیز شیراز، برای بررسی تاثیر پدیده تغییر اقلیم بر رواناب منطقه مورد مطالعه دادههای دو سناریوی مدل HadGEM2-ES در دو دوره با مدل آماری LARSE_WG کوچک مقیاس شد. در مرحله بعد، رواناب منطقه با استفاده از مدل SWMM شبیهسازی شد و نتایج آن با رواناب اندازهگیری شده مقایسه شد. بدین منظور، دو واقعه برای واسنجی و یک واقعه برای اعتبارسنجی مورد استفاده قرار گرفت. بر اساس آمارههای همبستگی (R)، ریشه مربعات خطا (RMSE) و ضریب کارایی نش-ساتکلیف (NSE) مدل از کارایی مناسبی برای شبیهسازی رواناب برخوردار است. سپس، دادههای بارش مدل LARSE_WG به مدل SWMM وارد شده و تغییرات رواناب در دورههای آتی نسبت به دوره پایه محاسبه شد. طبق سناریوهای اقلیمی RCP4.5 و RCP8.5 پیشبینی میشود که بارش در دوره 2040-2021، 16.10 تا 8.88 و در دوره 2080-2061، 14.49 و 19.73 درصد افزایش خواهد داشت. بنابراین، با فرض عدم تغییر کاربری در سطح منطقه هشت شهر شیراز از این لحاظ حجم رواناب 13.35 تا 21.48 درصد افزایش خواهد یافت.
General. Including nature conservation, geographical distribution, River protective works. Regulation. Flood control
مقدمه
شناخت فرکانس وقوع خشکسالیهای با شدت و تداومهای مختلف و پیشبینی به موقع آنها برای اعلام هشدار، یکی از نیازهای اساسی پروژههای منابع آب است. پدیده خشکسالی، به سه گروه عمده هواشناسی، کشاورزی و هیدرولوژی تقسیم میشود. پایش خشکسالیهای هیدرولوژیکی، یکی از نیازهای اساسی مدیریت منابع آب در حوزههای آبخیز، بهویژه در بخش کشاورزی آبی به شمار میآید. در سالهای اخیر، شاخصها و روشهای جدیدی برای پایش خشکسالی هیدرولوژیکی در سطح جهان ارائه شده است.
مواد و روشها
در این پژوهش، شاخصهای جریان کمینه (Q75، Q90 و Q95) مستخرج از منحنی تداوم جریان و سریهای جریان کمینه (10 و30 روزه) و همچنین، حجم کمبود جریان برای پایش خشکسالی هیدرولوژیکی در حوضه دریای خزر، مورد بررسی و ارزیابی قرار گرفته است. بدین منظور، 40 ایستگاه هیدرومتری که دارای آمار 41 ساله (از سال آبی 1351-1350 تا 1391-1390) بود، انتخاب شد. در مرحله بعد، دادههای ایستگاههای مورد مطالعه از نظر همگنی، استقلال و تصادفی بودن، مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفت. سپس، به کمک روش تحلیل خوشهای مرتبهای و رگرسیون گام به گام، مناطق همگن هیدرولوژیکی تعیین و تحلیل منطقهای این شاخصها انجام شد.
نتایج و بحث
برای بررسی ویژگیهای جریان کمینه در حوضه دریای خزر، ابتدا منحنی تداوم جریان برای هر یک از ایستگاهها رسم و سپس، سه شاخص Q75، Q90 و Q95 برای هر یک از ایستگاهها محاسبه شد. برای مقایسه مکانی جریان کمینه، از دبی کمینه ویژه یا qs (مقدار دبی کمینه تقسیم بر سطح) استفاده شد. شاخص qs75، بین 0.0006 تا 13 متر مکعب بر ثانیه بر کیلومتر مربع تغییر میکند. مقدار qs75، در قسمتهای شرقی، کمتر (خشکتر) و در قسمتهای غربی منطقه، مقدار خشکی جریان کمتر از سایر نقاط است. بررسی نقشههای توزیع مکانی این سه شاخص، نشان میدهد که روند تغییرات مکانی آنها تقریبا مشابه است و همگی بیانگر مرطوبتر بودن مناطق غربی حوضه دریای خزر نسبت به مناطق شرقی و مرکزی هستند. در مرحله بعد، برای بررسی شاخصهای جریان کمینه، ابتدا سری جریانهای کمینه 10 و 30 روزه تهیه شد. با مقایسه پارامترهای توزیع به کمک روش امتیازدهی، توزیع لوگ پیرسون تیپ سه، بهعنوان بهترین توزیع در بیشتر ایستگاهها انتخاب شد. پس از انتخاب مناسبترین توزیع، مقادیر شاخصهای کمینه 10 روزه و 30 روزه با دوره بازگشتهای مختلف محاسبه شد. بررسی میانگین شاخصها نشان میدهد که کمترین مقدار دبی کمینه 10 روزه با مقدار 0.01 متر مکعب بر ثانیه در ایستگاه وطنا (035-12) واقع در شرق حوضه و بیشترین میزان با مقدار 91.2 متر مکعب در ثانیه در ایستگاه رودبار (034-17) در منطقه غرب حوضه است. در مورد میانگین دبی کمینه 30 روزه نیز کمترین مقدار برابر 0.02 متر مکعب برثانیه و بیشترین مقدار برابر 8.52 متر مکعب بر ثانیه در همین دو ایستگاه است. بهمنظور، بررسی تغییرات زمانی شدت خشکسالی هیدرولوژیکی، سریهای زمانی سالانه جریان کم 10 و 30 روزه در هر ایستگاه نسبت به سال وقوع آنها ترسیم شدند تا روند تغییرات وضعیت خشکسالی در سالهای مختلف مشخص شود. بررسی روند زمانی شاخصهای جریان کمینه بر روی نمودارها، نشان از کاهش مقدار شاخصها طی سالهای اخیر و روند منفی شاخصها دارد. به عبارت دیگر، نمودارها تقریبا در همه ایستگاهها بیان از خشکسالیهای هیدرولوژیکی (کاهش شاخصهای جریان کمینه) طی سالهای اخیر دارند. برای تعیین طول دورههای جریان کمینه نیز، در ایستگاههای مختلف میانگینهای متحرک 10 و 30 روزه دبی با مقدار شاخص Q90، مقایسه شد. نتایج نشان میدهد که تداوم خشکسالی در قسمتهای مرکزی حوضه دریای خزر (زیرحوضههای پلور، رزن، کرسنگ، تنگه لاویج، پلذغال و زوات) بیشتر از بقیه مناطق است که این زیرحوضهها در استان مازندران واقع هستند. کمترین تداوم خشکسالی (بین 22 تا 25 روز) نیز مربوط به زیرحوضههای شلمان، پل سازمان، پاشاکی، آستانه و توتکابن در قسمت شرقی حوضه دریای خزر و در استان گیلان است. قسمتهای شرقی حوضه نیز طول دوره خشکسالی بین 28 تا 30 روز را تجربه کردهاند.
نتیجهگیری
نتایج نشان میدهد که در سالهای 1377 تا 1390، در بیشتر ایستگاهها شدیدترین و طولانیترین خشکسالیها اتفاق افتاده است. بررسی توزیع مکانی شاخصهای جریان کمینه و حجم کمبود جریان، بیانگر خشکتر بودن قسمتهای شرقی حوضه نسبت به مرکزی و غرب حوضه دریای خزر است. هرچند، طول دوره خشکسالیهای هیدرولوژیکی در خزر مرکزی بیشتر از سایر نقاط حوضه است. بررسی روند زمانی شاخصها نیز بیانگر افزایش تکرار و طول مدت خشکسالیهای هیدرولوژیکی در سالهای اخیر است. مقایسه شاخصهای مختلف نشان میدهد که همه شاخصها نتایج مشابهی در منطقه دارند. بررسی روابط منطقهای نشان داد که در منطقه همگن شرقی عامل تاثیرگذار بر شاخصهای جریان، ارتفاع است. در حالیکه در منطقه مرکزی و غربی مساحت و تراکم زهکشی، تاثیر بیشتری دارند.
General. Including nature conservation, geographical distribution, River protective works. Regulation. Flood control
Antoine P. Leeman, Johannes Köhler, Andrea Zanelli
et al.
This paper addresses the problem of finite horizon constrained robust optimal control for nonlinear systems subject to norm-bounded disturbances. To this end, the underlying uncertain nonlinear system is decomposed based on a first-order Taylor series expansion into a nominal system and an error (deviation) described as an uncertain linear time-varying system. This decomposition allows us to leverage system level synthesis to jointly optimize an affine error feedback, a nominal nonlinear trajectory, and, most importantly, a dynamic linearization error over-bound used to ensure robust constraint satisfaction for the nonlinear system. The proposed approach thereby results in less conservative planning compared with state-of-the-art techniques. We demonstrate the benefits of the proposed approach to control the rotational motion of a rigid body subject to state and input constraints.