Hasil untuk "History of Law"

Fatma Arın Namal

Istanbul University Istanbul Faculty of Medicine was the only medical faculty in Türkiye until the Ankara University, Faculty of Medicine was established in 1945 under Law No. 4761. Therefore, the history of medical education in Turkiye was part of the Istanbul Medical Faculty until the establishment of this second medical school. After the conquest of Istanbul, medical education was established at the Fatih Darüşşifa in Istanbul and continued to develop, being provided in institutions that opened and closed over time. This institution has undergone reforms since the establishment of Tıphane-i Âmire in 1827, which finally led to the institutionalisation of the Istanbul Faculty of Medicine. Physicians from Austria and Germany made significant contributions to the modernisation of education at this medical school during the Ottoman and Republican periods. The Istanbul University Istanbul Faculty of Medicine has supported the development of new medical faculties established in Türkiye by providing the new institutions with faculty members. Based on 2023 data, among the 128 medical faculties established in Türkiye, either by the state or private enterprise, the Istanbul University Istanbul Faculty of Medicine has a prestigious place in Türkiye, as it was the first medical school and has always been an innovative and guiding medical institution. The school has graduates who have made significant contributions to medicine. Examples include Hulusi Behçet (1889- 1948), the discoverer of Behçet’s Disease, who graduated from the Istanbul School of Medicine in 1910, and Aziz Sancar (1946-), who graduated from the Istanbul School of Medicine in 1969 and shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 2015.

Alexis Buixan

Réfléchir à l’émergence du concept de « culture de constitution » dans le débat académique pose la question de l’intériorisation par les acteurs politiques et juridiques des formes constitutionnelles dans leurs pratiques politiques. Inscrit dans une démarche comparatiste, ce phénomène permet de mettre en évidence des trajectoires nationales singulières, déterminées par l’histoire, les mœurs, les contextes sociaux et les règles de droit. Ce concept devient ainsi un étalon pour éprouver la légitimité et l’adhésion ressenties à l’égard de la Constitution. Une telle méthode juridico-culturelle nous informe plus largement sur la fonction réflexive du droit constitutionnel comparé : « connaître l’autre pour mieux se connaître soi-même ».

A. A. Kudryavtsev

Introduction. The first half of the XIII century was marked in the history of the peoples of Central Asia, the Near and Middle East and the Caucasus by turbulent events associated with the Mongol invasion, which changed the military, political, economic and cultural development of these regions for many centuries. Materials and Methods. This research was conducted on the basis of a broad interdisciplinary approach and generally accepted historical methods. For the first time In Russian Caucasian studies, a comprehensive study was conducted based on the analysis of medieval Arabic, Georgian, Azerbaijani and Derbent sources. Analysis. One of the most powerful states, among the first to fall under the blows of the Mongols, was the power of the Khorezmshahs. Having conquered China and preparing his expansion to the West, Genghis Khan was very wary of this largest state of the Muslim East, which could field about 400-500 thousand welltrained and well–armed warriors capable of inflicting a decisive defeat, significantly inferior in numbers, to the Mongol troops. The grossest militarypolitical and strategic mistakes of the last ruling ruler of the Khorezmshah state, Ala alDin Muhammad, who placed his huge army in isolation in separate large cities, thereby condemning his troops to defeat and the state to destruction. In just 4 months, the Mongols captured and looted the main military, political, economic and cultural centers of the Khorezmshah state. Jalal al-Din Mankburny, becoming the last ruler of the Khorezmshakh state, tried to regain his father’s former power in the Middle East and the Caucasus and in the 20s – early 30s of the XIII century played a significant role in the historical destinies of the peoples of these regions. For more than 10 years, pursuing an expansive policy and continuously participating in wars, Jalal al-Din in the 20s of the XIII century turned out to be the only really military, military-administrative and political figure capable of resisting the Mongol invasion of the Middle East and the Caucasus regions.Results. Jalal al-Din understood that the weakened states of the Caucasus and the Middle East alone were not able to repel the Mongol forces, which forced the last Khorezm Shah to make efforts to unite the Caucasian and Middle Eastern rulers to repel the Mongol invasion, but he failed to achieve this.

Vinogradov I.S., Mamakhatov T.M.

In recent years, the drug situation in China has generally stabilized, and according to official Chinese statistics, the number of drug addicts is reducing. However, China remains one of the key sources of synthetic drugs and precursors to other countries. The spread of narcotic drugs (synthetic opioids, cannabinoids, methamphetamine and others) threatens all countries. An important factor is that the Chinese government is able to control the large number of pharmaceutical manufacturers in the country , thus making it difficult for new types and modifications of drugs and psychoactive substances to appear on the market. In recent years, the PRC leadership has taken a number of effective steps to combat the uncontrolled production and distribution of illegal drugs, in particular, the state tightens control and regulation of the production of synthetic psychoactive drugs. China has strict laws against drug trafficking, which also serve as an effective deterrent against the distribution and consumption of illicit substances. Due to these measures, the international drug business is forced to move laboratories for the production of synthetic drugs from China to other nearby countries such as Myanmar and India. The situation with the international drug trade in the modern world requires concerted action at the interstate level. The interaction between law enforcement agencies of the SCO (the Shanghai Cooperation Organization) member states is a good example of cooperation in this area. One of the priorities of this organization is the fight against drug crime. At this stage, it is necessary to further deepen cooperation between the law enforcement agencies of the SCO countries to identify established drug trafficking channels, fight against drug trafficking in the dark web and prevent the emergence of analogues to various psychotropic substances prohibited by law.

Vendulka Valentová

Women have generally been permitted to study law properly at university since the late 19th century. The first country to allow women to study at university level was the United States of America. In Europe, it has been possible for women to study law at the universities and practise it, particularly as attorneys-at-law, later than in the USA, but with equal success.

Bence Krusóczki

"This entry will deal with the history of competition law, including the first substantive competition law of Hungary, i.e Article V of 1923, which contained provisions regarding unfair competition. Currently, unfair competition is the subject of competition law, one of the branches of economic law, which contains regulations regarding the protection of economic competition and the prevention of consumer detriment. The purpose of Article V of 1923 was to offer general protection against any form of unfair competition. However, the description of each provision of the Article and the detailed demonstration and investigation of their practical implementation is not the topic of this entry. The present paper will specifically focus on the arbitral tribunals of the Chamber and the practice of the jury since the fact that the duty and practice of these two bodies were highly significant for the application of the law in that era can be clearly concluded from the summary of research results."

Gerrit Schellenberger, Ewan O’Sullivan, Simona Giacintucci et al.

The galaxy group NGC 6338 is one of the most violent group–group mergers known to date. While the central dominant galaxies rush at each other at 1400 km s ^−1 along the line of sight, with dramatic gas heating and shock fronts detected, the central gas in the BCGs remains cool. There are also indications of feedback from active galactic nuclei, and neither subcluster core has been disrupted. With our deep radio uGMRT data at 383 and 650 MHz, we clearly detect a set of large, old lobes in the southern BCG coinciding with the X-ray cavities, while the northern and smaller BCG appears slightly extended in the radio. The southern BCG also hosts a smaller younger set of lobes perpendicular to the larger lobes, but also coinciding with the inner X-ray cavities and matching the jet direction in the parsec-resolution VLBA image. Our spectral analysis confirms the history of two feedback cycles. The high radio frequency analysis classifies the compact source in the southern BCG with a power law, while ruling out a significant contribution from accretion. The radio lightcurve over three decades shows a change about 10 yr ago, which might be related to ongoing feedback in the core. The southern BCG in the NGC 6338 merger remains another prominent case where the direction of jet-mode feedback between two cycles changed dramatically.

Sirijit Sunanta, Asuncion Fresnoza-Flot

The interview with Mrs. Chongcharoen Sornkaew Grimsmann, a long-term member and former president of Thai Women Network in Europe (TWNE), was originally conducted in English over email by Sirijit Sunanta and Asuncion Fresnoza-Flot in July 2022. It was supplemented by an online interview (via WebEx) in Thai by Sirijit Sunanta in November 2022. Mrs. Grimsmann served as the President of TWNE from 2019 to 2022. TWNE is well-established and one of the most active organizations of Thai migrant women with individual and organizational members in 16 European countries, the US, and Thailand. TWNE seeks to collaborate with governmental and non-governmental organizations, both in Thailand and the destination countries, to improve the welfare of Thai migrant women. They organize annual general meetings to discuss topics relevant to Thai migrant women’s lives in destination countries and publish an annual newsletter Sarn Satree (สารสตรี) to circulate information. Mrs. Grimsmann has extensive experience of providing community service as a social volunteer and working with international organizations, particularly in the area of women and children’s welfare. She is now based in France and Thailand.

T. Nevskaya

The article shows what problems interested humanities scholars and publicists in the prewar period of the Soviet history and how these problems were covered from new methodological positions. The works created at that time by historians of the old school are examined, it is emphasized that even in articles written by authors who have not mastered Marxist theory, much attention is paid to the problems of the life of the masses, the manifestations of the class struggle, and public relations in Stavropol villages. The activity of local history societies and organizations is highlighted. Researchers paid much attention to the problems of the agrarian history of Stavropol, works of this time, as a rule, affect both the pre-Soviet and Soviet periods, since most of them give comparative material. In the 1920s, when the ways of agricultural development were not yet determined, the practical needs of the agricultural sector caused increased attention to the issues of developing cooperation, forms of land ownership and land use in the past. The restructuring of the economy in a socialist manner in the late 1920s and early 1930s is reflected in the journalistic articles of party and Soviet leaders. In the period under review, the history of the revolutionary movement and the struggle for power of the Soviets became the most relevant topics for research. The article discusses the activities of Eastparts - commissions on the history of the revolutionary movement and civil war. It is shown that these organizations, including the Stavropol Istpart, have done a lot to collect and publish materials on this topic. The analysis of journal publications is given, the errors made by the authors are revealed. The widespread publication of the memoirs of participants in revolutionary events, characteristic of the 1920s, was not accompanied by a critical check, therefore, over articles containing incorrect information or a controversial assessment of events, discussions arose in which both historians and participants in the events took part. The characteristic is given to generalizing works on the history of the October Revolution and the Civil war in the Stavropol Territory.

Graziano Ruffini

The article, based on archival sources, examines a sale of books held in Genoa in 1583 between two booksellers: Cristoforo Zabata and Antonio Orero. Most of these books had been previously acquired in Venice. The article provides an accurate analysis of book prices according to subject: law, literature, history, medicine and so on. The survey also highlights costs with regard to the number of sheets, format and language, thus providing a set of information useful for further comparative cross-regional studies. The appendix includes a transcription of the source along with a bibliographic identification of the books enlisted.

Zulyadi Rizkan, Syaputra Muhammad Yusrizal Adi

Manpower development is an integral part of national development based on Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution, which is implemented through the development of a reliable Indonesian workers for the realization of a prosperous Indonesian society. Manpower development must be fairly regulated so as to provide comprehensive protection for Indonesian workers. On March 26, 2018 President Jokowi signed the Presidential Regulation No. 20 of 2018 concerning Use of Foreign Workers, this regulation is considered to harm Indonesian workers. This research use a normative method and juridical approach with Theory of Popular Sovereignty by John Locke. Normative legal research is a research that discusses the legal aspect, by conducting library research in terms of comparative law or legal history oriented to the applicable laws and regulations. Based on Theory of Popular Sovereignty, Presidential Regulation 20 of 2018 contradictory to the Manpower Act especially about the Plan of Use of Foreign Workers. Even the regulation does not pay attention to the interests of the people to get a job and only prioritize the entry of investment to Indonesia.

José Luis ALONSO SANTOS, Auro APARECIDO MENDES, Silvia Aparecida GUARNIERI ORTIGOZA

In the economic relations between Spain and Brazil investment is the most relevant factor. The text analyzes its evolution, mainly from the beginning of the twenty-first century, which marks a new phase of contraction and increase in economic and political relations. Since the 1990s, Spanish capital found in Brazil a strategic market in the process of internationalization of its companies. Intense Spanish investment of the latter years of the last century, very polarized towards the liberalized and privatized public services, will give way starting from 2000 to a process of investment of smaller volume but of greater diversity of activities that develop the businesses. Today, the large companies of the Spanish Ibex are well accompanied in Brazil by a large number of medium and small companies that believe in the country and have arrived to stay.

Sanja Holjevac, Anastazija Vlastelić

Kvaderna kapitula lovranskoga is a collection of different types of documents written in Lovran between 15th and 18th century in Glagolic script and Croatian language and Latin script and Italian language (different lists of rights and obligations, contracts, calculatings, law, registers, wills). Kvaderna has been recognized as an important source for scientifi c research of the history of Lovran and Lovranština. The approaches used in the paper were linguistic and historical ones and were applied only on documents written in Glagolic script and Croatian language. The aim of the paper is to distinguish selected phonological, morphological and syntactic features. Based on the analysis, the paper confirms if the language of Kvaderna refl ects the features of Čakavian idiom that it belongs to and determines the linguistic base and upgrade.

Edílson Fernandes de Souza, Maria da Conceição dos Reis, Vilde Gomes de Menezes

<div align="justify">Objetivando compreender a estrutura das políticas de educação das relações etnicorraciais ao longo da história da educação brasileira e de identificar como vem se configurando sua legislação, este artigo se propõe a responder a seguinte questão: que especificidades e caminhos as políticas de educação das relações etnicorraciais vêm traçando através da legislação brasileira? Buscamos, portanto, traçar o caminho das características da educação escolar brasileira referente à temática etnicorracial desde o período colonial aos dias atuais, passando pelas Constituições já promulgadas à legislação educacional nacional atual específica sobre essa temática: a Lei nº 10.639/2003. Nesse percurso, ressaltamos as dificuldades que a população afrobrasileira enfrentou e vem enfrentando no tocante à interpretação das leis e à implementação de políticas educacionais que favorecem as relações etnicorraciais.<br><br>Abstract In order to understand the structure of educational policies in regards to etnic-racial relations throughout the history of Brazilian education and identify how these come to configure legislation, this article proposes to answer following question: which specific details and directions have educational policies been drawing in regards to etnic-racial issues through the Brazilian legislation? We seek, therefore, to outline the path of the characteristics of the Brazilian school educational system regarding this etnic-racial theme from the time of the colonial period to the present days, going through past Constitutions until the specific present national educational legislation on this topic: law nº 10.639/2003. Along the way, we point out the difficulties that the Afro-Brazilian population faced and faces when it comes to the interpretation of the laws and the implementation of educational policies that favor etnic-racial relations.</div>

Victor H. Sundquist

The fundamental question of whether or not the Green Movement’s opposition leaders were successful in their attempts to change the political landscape in Iran first lies in understanding the premise behind the organization and secondly recognizing the actual goals of the leadership. Consequently, this article analyzes these questions as a framework for developing a comparative analysis between revolutions and civil rights movements as a means to understand both the intent and outcomes of the Green Movement. From this analysis, lessons learned are put forth as a means to establish a series of recommendations for future Western political engagements with Iran. In doing so, the hope is that a political dialogue will emerge between Western governments that both alleviate the current tensions while also addressing security concerns in the region.

Carmen Yuste

Michał Sczaniecki

Recenzja: Polish Law throughout the Ages — 1000 Years of Legal Thought in Poland, ed. by W. Wagner, Stanford University, Stanford, California, Hoover Institution Press, b.d. (1970), s. 476.

Juliusz Bardach

Le verbe so iti et ses dérivations, les substantifs sok et prosoka, se rencontrent dans les sources lituaniennes et en particulier dans le Livre de Justice du Casimir Jagellon (1468) et dans les trois rédactions consécutives du Statut Lituanien à savoir de 1529 (Ier Statut), 1566 (IIe Statut), et 1588 (IIIe Statut), ainsi que dans la pratique judiciaire des XVe - XVIe siècles. Sok signifiait une personne qui, moyennant une récompense en argent, appelée prosoka aidait celui qui était lésé par un vol ou un pillage de retrouver les objets enlevés et d’identifier le voleur ou le brigand. Le sok entrait en action quand le délinquant ne pouvait pas être pris en flagrant délit suivant la procédure connue aussi en Europe Occidentale sous le nom de  vestigium sequi. Le sok qui se présentait devant la cour était un témoin privilégié. Sa déposition, appuyée par les indices extérieurs et l’opinion négative de la communauté à laquelle appartenait le suspect, suffisait pour le livrer au bourreau et lui faire subir les tortures ce que — en pratique •— préjugeait la condamnation. Avec le temps — ce qu’on peut decéler dans les rédactions consécutives du Statut — la position du sok s’affaiblit. A la fin de l’évolution le sok est identifié avec le délateur ou même avec le calomniateur. Pour dépister les origines du sok, son rôle et ses fonctions nous avons eu recours à la méthode comparative dans le cadre non seulement des pays slaves mais aussi des pays germaniques. La science tchèque qui s’ intéressait tout particulièrement au sok représentait dans sa majorité une thèse (défendue entre autres par Joseph Markov et Vladimrir Prochâzka) selon laquelle sok. était une institution commune à tous les peuples slaves. Nous, tenons à rectifier ce point de vue, en attirant l'attention sur le fait qu’en Russie (excepté les territoires ruthènes appartenant au Grand Duché de Lituanie) on rencontrait seulement l’action nommée so iti = chercher, poursuivre, accuser, etc., mais non pas la personne de sok. Cela provient — d’après notre avis — du fait, que dans l’ancienne Russie déjà aux XIe - XIIe siècles on rencontrait les agents du pouvoir ducal, appelés jabednik et — plus tard — pravet ik (des le commencement du XVe siècle), qui pourchassaient les voleurs (voire les brigands), ce qui témoigne l’existence d’une organisation politico-administrative fortement structurée. En Pologne, les mentions concernant le sok (connu principalement sous la forme so ca, oso ca) sont rares et ne permettent pas de préciser son rôle dans la procédure visant la détection des délinquants. Outre le Grand Duché de Lituanie et la Bohême, on rencontrait le sok en Dalmatie, en Serbie et surtout au Monténegro, où il fonctionnait encore dans la deuxième moitié du XIXe siècle, comme l’a constaté V. Bogisi . Il accomplissait son devoir parfois incognito pour éviter la vengeance de la part de l’accusé ou de ses parents. C’est dans ce but-là qu’on introduisit en Balkans un tiers nommé sokodržica, qui témoignait devant la cour au nom du sok, dont l’anonymat était soigneusement gardé. Comme récompense de leur besogne sok et sokodržica recevaient une somme d’argent nommé socbina, qui ressemblait beaucoup à la prosoka lituanienne. On ne connaît pas le sok en Bulgarie, Slovenie ni dans les pays des Slaves installés entre l’Oder et l’Elbe. Par contre, dans le droit anglo-saxon du IXe siècle on rencontre le soke comme terme désignant les prérogatives juridictionnelles du seigneur. Ces prérogatives consistaient en droit de pourchasser les gens ayant commis des délits sur le territoire soumis à sa domination et de les traduire devant la justice seigneuriale. Après la conquête normande, le terme sake and soke définissait l’ensemble des droits de la juridiction seigneuriale. Dans les pays scandinaves sôkn et ses dérivés désignaient l’arrondissement du thing (plus tard de la paroisse), qui était identique à celui du tribunal. Nous arrivons à la conclusion que le sok n’était pas un phénomène exclusivement slave, mais — comme l’ont noté déjà depuis longtemps les linguistes — appartient à un cercle plus vaste, notamment au cercle germano-slave, avec cette particularité qu’après la formation de pays germaniques et slaves particuliers, il se développait dans chaque pays séparément, d’où, à part l’unité fondamentale, les différences secondaires que nous avons évoqué ici. La procédure à laquelle participait le sok doit être conçue comme un procès mixte. Son but était non seulement la revendication des choses et des serfs enlevés, mais aussi la punition du voleur (brigand). C’est ainsi que le rôle du sok se profila surtout dans le procès avec la domination des éléments pénaux, dans lequel la personne reconnue coupable était souvent punie de la mort. Le rôle joué par le sok, qui n’ayant pas le caractère d’agent du pouvoir, agissait en résultat d’un accord avec la personne lésée témoigne, s’il en est encore besoin, de la longue survivance des éléments du self-help dans la procédure de l’époque féodale.

Stanisław Salmonowicz

Recenzja: Werner Schöll, Der Codex Juris Bavarici Judiciarii von 1753 im Vergleich mit den prozessrechtlichen Bestimmungen der bayerischen Gesetzgebung von 1616 und mit dem Entwurf und den Gutachtern von 1752/3, wyd. A. Schubert. München 1965, ss. 291.

Stanisław Salmonowicz

Recenzja: Bernard Durand, Arbitraire du juge et consuetudo delinquendi. La doctrine pénale en Europe du XVIe au XVIIIe siècles (= Publications de la Société d’histoire et des institutions des anciens pays de droit écrit, V), Montpellier 1993