Tanvir Mahtab Uddin, A. Chakraborty, A. Khusro
et al.
Antibiotics have been used to cure bacterial infections for more than 70 years, and these low-molecular-weight bioactive agents have also been used for a variety of other medicinal applications. In the battle against microbes, antibiotics have certainly been a blessing to human civilization by saving millions of lives. Globally, infections caused by multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria are on the rise. Antibiotics are being used to combat diversified bacterial infections. Synthetic biology techniques, in combination with molecular, functional genomic, and metagenomic studies of bacteria, plants, and even marine invertebrates are aimed at unlocking the world's natural products faster than previous methods of antibiotic discovery. There are currently only few viable remedies, potential preventive techniques, and a limited number of antibiotics, thereby necessitating the discovery of innovative medicinal approaches and antimicrobial therapies. MDR is also facilitated by biofilms, which makes infection control more complex. In this review, we have spotlighted comprehensively various aspects of antibiotics viz. overview of antibiotics era, mode of actions of antibiotics, development and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and future strategies to fight the emerging antimicrobial resistant threat.
Abstract Westernized populations are plagued by a plethora of chronic non-infectious degenerative diseases, termed as “civilization diseases”, like obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, autoimmune diseases, Alzheimer's disease and many more, diseases which are rare or virtually absent in hunter-gatherers and other non-westernized populations. There is a growing awareness that the cause of this amazing discrepancy lies in the profound changes in diet and lifestyle during recent human history. This paper shows that the transition from Paleolithic nutrition to Western diets, along with lack of corresponding genetic adaptations, cause significant distortions of the fine-tuned metabolism that has evolved over millions of years of human evolution in adaptation to Paleolithic diets. With the increasing spread of Western diet and lifestyle worldwide, overweight and civilization diseases are also rapidly increasing in developing countries. It is suggested that the diet-related key changes in the developmental process include an increased production of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress, development of hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance, low-grade inflammation and an abnormal activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin system, all of which play pivotal roles in the development of diseases of civilization. In addition, diet-related epigenetic changes and fetal programming play an important role. The suggested pathomechanism is also able to explain the well-known but not completely understood close relationship between obesity and the wide range of comorbidities, like type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, etc., as diseases of the same etiopathology. Changing our lifestyle in accordance with our genetic makeup, including diet and physical activity, may help prevent or limit the development of these diseases.
This paper, using materials from embassy books as a historical source, examines concepts that were used in the 16th century by Russian, Crimean, and Turkish diplomats in international dialogue. These are terms associated with the name of the monarch, the hierarchy of states, and the concept of power. The concept of “petition” (chelobitie) and its evolution in diplomatic relations is specifically examined. The author argues that by the 16th century, the concept of “petition” in international relations did not imply the different status of diplomatic partners, but a specific situation in which one party addresses the other with some initiative. The “petition” was acting as an ethical category, an element of political ritual. The article examines the problem of non-recognition of the Tsar’s title of Ivan the Terrible by the Crimean Khanate. The methods of legitimization of Russia’s power over the annexed territories and the problems of religious tolerance are considered separately. Different policies towards Muslim and Catholic countries, various methods of diplomatic argumentation, and explanatory strategies are noted. Mutual religious tolerance was linked to practical motives. The parties tried to reduce the factors that aggravated the prospects of reaching diplomatic agreements, and the refusal to exacerbate confrontation on religious grounds was one of the diplomatic instruments.
Auxiliary sciences of history, History of Civilization
The article provides an overview of operations of the London office of the All-Russian Cooperative Society Limited (ARСOS Ltd.) in 1920–27. The author has analyzed the activities of the trade organization in the period from the beginning of its existence in June 1920 to the restriction of its operations because of the police raid on Arcos in May 1927. Special attention is paid to the years 1921–22, since ARСOS Ltd. had greater independence and represented the most unified structure at that time. The author has prepared diagrams showing the organizational structure of Arcos according to the data from the State Archive of the Russian Federation and the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation. The article analyzes changes in the structure of the organization during that period, the processes of accepting orders for importing goods to Soviet Russia, and personnel policy, and also briefly describes the trading activities of the company, and enumerates some subsidiaries of Arcos. The author has come to the conclusion that the frequent change of the company’s structure is associated with a number of reasons, the simplest, most direct and working mechanism of records management in the first place. Within the framework of the organization’s personnel policy, priority was given to Soviet citizens or people ideologically loyal to Soviet Russia. From the very beginning of Arcos existence, and especially in 1923 and later, some departments that were engaged in narrowly focused work became more independent and left the company. The aspirations of the Trade Delegation to subjugate ARCOS Ltd. also played a role in the process of regular transformations in the organization’s structure. The author has concluded that despite all the differences in organizational, clerical, and personnel policy, the company achieved a significant increase in working capital and became the largest foreign trading association in the UK.
History of Civilization, History (General) and history of Europe
Fatma Hatun, Türkiye Selçuklu sultanlarından II. İzzeddin Keykâvus’un kızıdır. Selçuklu sultanlarından olan II. İzzeddin Keykâvus, Moğol tahakkümü devrinde Türkmenlerle birlikte hem kardeşine hem de Moğollara karşı Selçuklu ülkesinin, hanedan ailesinin ve Anadolu halkının bağımsızlığını korumak için türlü yollar aramış ancak başarılı olamayınca ülkesini terk ederek ailesiyle birlikte önce Bizans’a sonra da Altın Orda Hanlığına sığınmak zorunda kalmıştır. Muhtemelen babasıyla birlikte Konya’dan Kırım’a giden ya da Kırım’da dünyaya gelen Fatma Hatun’un hayatı birçok bilinmeyenle doludur. Buna rağmen onun Türkiye Selçuklu ülkesine döndüğü ve burada hem annesi ve kendisi hem de sütannesi için bir vakıf inşa ettirdiği ortadadır. Selçuklu ülkesinde saltanat kadınlarının kurdukları vakıfların türlerini, konumlarını, malzemesini, bu eserlerin kitâbe ve süslemelerini belirlemeleri, onların kendilerini nerede ve nasıl hangi araçlarla temsil etmek istediklerini açıkça göstermektedir. Bunun yanında, kadın vakıf kurucuların eserlerini yalnızca toplumun sosyal bir ihtiyacının karşılanması, mimari ve sanatsal bir değer ya da itibar meşruiyeti olarak değerlendirmek doğru değildir. Bu vakıflar, kadınlara Selçuklu döneminde atfedilmiş olan toplumsal değerlerin sonraki kuşaklara aktarılması bakımından da çok önemlidir. Dolayısıyla bu vakıf külliye, Fatma Hatun’un vakfettiği gelirlerle 20. yüzyılın başlarına kadar ekonomik işleyişini devam ettirmenin ve bir medeniyetin kültürel devamlılığını sağlamanın yanında Selçuklu hanedan ailesi ile ilgili birçok bilginin ortaya çıkmasına da imkân vermiştir.
Research objectives: To systematize information about the contribution of the Tatar scholar and encyclopedist Naki Isanbet (1899–1992) to the study of the history and culture of the Golden Horde and the popularization of this knowledge among the Tatars..
Research materials: Folklore materials, scientific works, and literary works of Naki Isanbet served as the basis of the study. Cultural-historical, semiotic-culturological, comparative, and other research methods, chosen based on the nature of the analyzed text, were used.
Novelty of the research: a comprehensive analysis of Naki Isanbet’s contribution to the study of the Golden Horde and the popularization of this information among the Tatars.
Results of the research: The work proves that this scholar and encyclopedist began to seriously develop the theme of the Golden Horde in the late 1920s. Based on the analysis of archival materials, the chronicle of the work of Naki Isanbet on the creation of consolidated texts of the dastans “Idukai and Muradym” and “Idegey” is reconstructed. The scientific value of introductory scientific articles to these textual works and his comments is revealed. Information on the history of the creation of the tragedy “Idegey” by N. Isanbet and the history of its existence on the Tatar stage is systematized. The contribution of the folklorist to the study of the work of the Chichyans of the Golden Horde and the popularization of information about their activities in the comedy “Cirän çiçän belän Qaraçäç sılu” (“Red-haired mocker and his black-haired beauty”) is determined. The proportion of folk proverbs, riddles, phraseological units in the folklore collections of N. Isanbet aimed at popularizing information about the Golden Horde among a wide readership has been revealed.
Auxiliary sciences of history, History of Civilization
The cultural rituals of any society are the birth certificates of that society’s culture, history, religion, and ethics. These rites and rituals are an important factor in fostering cohesion and unity among the people of a society who gather together in various ceremonies. Mourning ceremonies and rituals vary in different provinces, cities, and villages across the country, particularly during the first decade of Muharram. Iran is considered one of the inheritors of world culture due to its diverse and rich cultural rituals. The purpose of this research is to do a comparative and documented study of Muharram rituals in these two provinces so that by revealing the manifestations of cultural rituals and their differences and similarities, we can reach the deep and rich layers of the culture of these two provinces. This research intends to investigate the differences and similarities between the rituals of the first decade of Muharram and their cultural differences in the two provinces of East Azarbaijan and Khuzestan, using a descriptive-comparative study method. These two provinces have a deep cultural and religious background and an ancient civilization. The results of this research show that despite the great similarity in the performance of Muharram rituals in the two provinces in question, the diversity of mourning rituals is also visible in these two provinces. The varieties and differences are closely related to cultural, climatic, and linguistic differences in these two provinces. These two provinces’ people have chosen to mourn in accordance with their religion, vegetation, culture, and language. The results of this research show that, in addition to these differences, the common points of this cultural ritual in the two provinces are the love of the Prophet’s family and devotion to Ashura culture.
Economic growth, development, planning, Ethnology. Social and cultural anthropology
In this article, on the basis of various historical evidence, the location of the Khazar cities is studied. A comprehensive description of the geographical objects indicated in ancient documents makes it possible to determine their localization. The data of Persian and Arab historians and chroniclers have been studied. The routes of the Arab armies, which made campaigns against the Khazar possessions, were studied. The analysis of the mentioned landmarks made it possible to find out the localization of the cities and regions of al-Khasin, Bar’uza, Balanjar, Vabandar, Samandar, al-Bayda. On the basis of written sources, the approximate borders of the “internal” Khazaria and the external limits to which the Khazar influence extended were established. The localization of the Sarkel fortress, which acted as a military and commercial outpost in the Black Sea region, was determined. The location of the Khazar capital Itil, located in front of the Volga delta, was established. It was determined that Balanjar, one of the early Khazar capitals, was located on the territory of the present city of Makhachkala. The location of Samandar, located on the right bank of the Sulak River, on the Khodum mountain of the Nadyrbek ridge, was revealed. Along with historical sources, the author draws on the results of modern research from related fields. The proposed article gives a fresh impetus to the study of the archaeological data of the region under consideration, allows us to take a fresh look at old problems.
The purpose of the work is to identify, highlight and generalize the innovative practice of preserving the documented historical and cultural heritage, providing access to it, studying it and promoting it through the use of immersive technologies. The methodology includes the use of a complex of scientific methods - heuristic, included observation, descriptive, analysis, generalization - the combination of which made it possible to identify, understand, summarize and reveal the experience of creating immersive products of documented historical and cultural heritage and their advantages for library practice. The scientific novelty consists in revealing the information and communication potential of immersive technologies to ensure wide access to documented historical and cultural heritage, its preservation, study and promotion, substantiation of immersive products of documented historical and cultural heritage as syncretic cultural monuments, outlining the role of libraries in the creation of such products. Conclusions. Immersive products of documented historical and cultural heritage open up new prospects for user access to valuable monuments of library collections, familiarization with them and their research. The integration of distributed various formats information with the help of immersive library and information products, accompanying the digital copy of the object with expert comments, a multimedia series, the possibility of studying details due to tools for magnification and rotation, the reconstruction of the authentic environment around the object form the basis for a complex perception and understanding of information, maximum immersion in the research subject. Immersive library and information products of documented historical and cultural heritage are a promising tool for preserving the nation's spiritual treasures by creating high-quality digital copies of documents, familiarizing a wide audience with the nation's documented spiritual heritage and popularizing the most valuable objects of library fonds as places of memory, expanding the source base historical and cultural research and training of relevant specialists, strengthening the positive image of libraries as institutions of memory, integrated into the processes of today, strengthening the international prestige of the state.
در تاریخ زندگی بشر اقوام و ملل به دلایلی در باورهای دینی و مذهبی برای عناصر طبیعی از جمله گیاهان جایگاه مقدس و اساطیری قائل شدهاند. از اینرو گیاهان مقدس در فرهنگ و هنر مردم راه یافته، چنانکه در نقوش و تزئینات ایرانی از دیرباز گل، میوه و درختانی نمادین حضور داشتهاند که در هنر دوران اسلامی نیز تداوم یافتهاند. در ایران باستان که خاستگاه بسیاری از گیاهان بوده، بلوط به عنوان میراثی کهن با زندگی مادی و معنوی زاگرسنشینان از جمله مردمان کهگیلویه و بویر احمد به نحوی آمیخته که به نماد سرزمینشان تبدیل شده است. از اینرو پژوهش حاضر تلاش دارد تا با نگاهی به اندیشه و باورهای ایرانیان در تصویرگری نقش بلوط بهویژه در هنر دوران ساسانی بپردازد، و در تداوم آن به تحلیل این نقشمایه، مفهوم و اهمیت جایگاه بلوط از گذشته تاکنون اشاره میکند. روش تحقیق توصیفی- تحلیلی و گردآوری اطلاعات از طریق اسناد و منابع کتابخانهای و گزارشات میدانی انجام شده است. یافتهها بیانگر آن است که استفاده از نقشمایة بلوط ورای جنبة تزئینی، از کاربردی نمادین و اعتقادی برخوردار بوده و با فرهنگ زاگرسنشینان به گونهای عجین شده است که زندگی، طبیعت، معاش، آدابورسوم و ادبیات شفاهی آنان را نیز تحت تأثیر قرار داده و به عبارتی ریشه در باورهای اسطورهای- آیینی این سرزمین دارد. نمادهایی که با تناوری، راستقامتی، پایداری و پیروزی در ارتباط است.
This review traces the growing burden of cancer in India from antiquity. We searched PubMed, Internet Archive, the British Library, and several other sources for information on cancer in Indian history. Paleopathology studies from Indus Valley Civilization sites do not reveal any malignancy. Cancer-like diseases and remedies are mentioned in the ancient Ayurveda and Siddha manuscripts from India. Cancer was rarely mentioned in the medieval literature from India. Cancer case reports from India began in the 17th century. Between 1860 and 1910, several audits and cancer case series were published by Indian Medical Service doctors across India. The landmark study by Nath and Grewal used autopsy, pathology, and clinical data between 1917 and 1932 from various medical college hospitals across India to confirm that cancer was a common cause of death in middle-aged and elderly Indians. India’s cancer burden was apparently low as a result of the short life expectancy of the natives in those times. In 1946, a national committee on health reforms recommended the creation of sufficient facilities to diagnose and manage the increasing cancer burden in all Indian states. Trends from the Mumbai population-based cancer registry revealed a four-fold increase in patients with cancer from 1964 to 2012. Depending on the epidemiologic transition level, wide interstate variation in cancer burden is found in India. We conclude that cancer has been recognized in India since antiquity. India’s current burden of a million incident cancers is the result of an epidemiologic transition, improved cancer diagnostics, and improved cancer data capture. The increase in cancer in India with wide interstate variations offers useful insights and important lessons for developing countries in managing their increasing cancer burdens.