In our time, the use of virtual space has become inevitable. Legislation and protection of users' rights is also a necessity of virtual life. In the meantime, the definition of personal data as a standard for data subject to data protection laws has a great importance. As long as the data is not related to a specific person, it is as if privacy has not been violated and there is no need for protection. Now the question is, what data is considered personal? Can specific instances of personal data be specified? In response, it can be said that a case-by-case investigation must be done to determine personal data and cannot be satisfied with a general rule. Whether data is personal or anonymous varies depending on factors such as facilities, time, nature of data, cost of identification, technological developments and the purpose of data processing. In the case of definite cases, although there is no definite determination of a specific type of data as personal data; But some examples, such as surnames in addition to other identifiers and pseudonymous data, are highly possibility to be considered personal data in the legal systems of the European Union and the United States. In this article, the laws and judicial procedure of the European Union and the United States of America as effective and leading legal systems in the field of data protection have been examined in order to determine a standard for identifying personal data and its examples.1. Introduction
In the rapidly transitioning 'onlife' world, where technology integrates with all aspects of daily life, all phenomena are increasingly transformed into data. This data plays a critical role in power dynamics, enabling those who control it to influence markets, predict behavior, and potentially manipulate individuals.
Given this reality, the preservation, management, and protection of data have become critical concerns, prompting the global enactment of data protection laws. These regulations naturally raise a fundamental question: What type of data should be protected?
Across various legal systems, the key criterion for data protection is whether the data in question is classified as personal. Data not considered personal typically falls outside the scope of protection, exempting it from the legal rights and obligations associated with privacy laws. However, this distinction is not new. Early legal scholars, including Warren and Brandeis (1890), emphasized that privacy protections apply only to identifiable individuals. From this perspective, if data is not linked to a specific individual, privacy concerns do not arise, and thus, no legal protection is required.
The accepted definition of personal data serves as the gateway to data protection law. Understanding this definition is essential for determining legal obligations and the extent of data protection measures. However, defining personal data is complex due to its multifaceted nature. These developments raise fundamental questions about the scope of personal data. Specifically, what level of connection must exist between information and an individual for it to be considered personal? Who must have access to the data for it to retain its classification? To what extent does data anonymization remove information from legal protection?
A balanced definition of personal data is necessary. If it is too narrow, privacy protections become ineffective. Conversely, if defined too broadly, excessive compliance burdens may render enforcement impractical and disrupt normal digital activities. Scholars in Iran have recognized the importance of personal data (and have provided definitions. However, previous studies have largely neglected specific examples of personal data and how U.S. law classifies them. To address these gaps, this article examines criteria for distinguishing personal from anonymous data and identifies specific examples based on legal standards in the European Union and the United States.
2. Methodology
This study employs a comparative legal approach, analyzing the definitions of personal data, the criteria for anonymization, and the legal treatment of sensitive data under the GDPR, the CCPA, and relevant case law.
The research relies on laws, judicial decisions, regulatory guidelines, and academic literature. A qualitative methodology is applied, emphasizing legal interpretation, case analysis, and comparative evaluation.
By identifying ambiguities and inconsistencies in defining personal data, this study aims to contribute to a clearer and more effective regulatory framework for data protection. The first section analyzes the definitions and key elements of personal data under EU and U.S. regulations. The second section explores definitive and controversial examples of personal data. The final section discusses sensitive personal data as a distinct category requiring special protection.
3. Results and Discussion
Personal data is the cornerstone of data protection laws. Many legal systems define personal data flexibly, classifying any information that can directly or indirectly identify an individual as personal. However, defining personal data requires a contextual approach rather than rigid classifications. The classification of certain data types—such as IP addresses, pseudonymous data, and anonymized data—remains a subject of legal debate.
A key observation is that the classification of data depends on contextual factors. Data that is personal under one set of circumstances may be considered anonymous under another. This makes it challenging to create exhaustive lists of personal data. Despite this, there is general consensus that certain data types, such as surnames combined with unique identifiers and pseudonymized data, are classified as personal data under EU and U.S. laws. In contrast, anonymized data and certain forms of metadata continue to spark legal controversy.
Furthermore, personal data varies in sensitivity. Some categories require stricter protections due to the potential harm associated with their exposure. However, the classification of sensitive data is also subject to legal interpretation and depends on specific factual contexts. Within the Iranian legal system, forthcoming legislation should adopt a careful and nuanced approach to defining personal data. Given the rapid advancement of re-identification techniques, definitions should be broad enough to account for evolving technological capabilities. The GDPR and other leading frameworks emphasize expansive definitions to ensure robust data protection.
Additionally, certain categories of information—such as court decisions and judicial opinions—necessitate regulated anonymization. A dedicated legal framework should be established to determine when data is truly anonymous. This framework should distinguish between anonymized and encrypted data, ensuring appropriate legal protections for each category. Clear guidelines will help service providers understand their obligations and reduce legal ambiguities.
4. Conclusions and Future Research
The definition of personal data is fundamental to data protection laws, yet it remains a flexible and evolving concept. Most legal frameworks classify any data capable of identifying an individual as personal, necessitating a contextual rather than rigid approach.
While there is consensus on some identifiers, debates persist regarding elements such as IP addresses, metadata, and anonymized data. Certain personal data types require heightened protection due to their sensitivity, but their classification depends on legal interpretation and contextual analysis.
For Iran, future data protection laws should adopt an analytical approach aligned with GDPR principles. Broad interpretations should be encouraged to address technological advancements. Additionally, clear anonymization guidelines should be established, particularly for public disclosures such as court rulings. A structured legal framework should differentiate anonymized data from encrypted data to prevent misinterpretation.
Sensitive personal data necessitates stricter safeguards. Future legal frameworks should impose more rigorous processing regulations, moving beyond predefined lists to a more dynamic classification system. Future research should focus on methodologies for determining personal data based on evolving technologies and regulatory developments. Comparative studies across different jurisdictions could refine global best practices and provide clearer guidance for policymakers and organizations handling sensitive personal information.
Regulation of industry, trade, and commerce. Occupational law, Islamic law
Changes in United States trade policy, especially protectionist policies, have had a significant impact on Indonesia's international trade, especially in the textile and agricultural sectors. The imposition of high tariffs on several commodities has disrupted the dynamics of global trade, as shown by the decline in Indonesian exports to the United States based on data from the Ministry of Trade of the Republic of Indonesia. This research aims to analyze the specific impact of United States trade policy on Indonesia's trade performance and provide strategic recommendations to reduce these negative impacts. The research method used is descriptive analysis with a case research approach using data from the World Bank and the Center for Strategic and International Studies. The results show that United States protectionist policies have the greatest impact on small and medium enterprises in Indonesia's textile industry. As an implication, this research recommends diversifying export markets and increasing trade agreements with non-US countries to strengthen Indonesia's trade resilience. It is hoped that these findings will serve as a reference for policy makers in formulating adaptive and sustainable trade strategies.
Ryguła Artur, Brzozowski Krzysztof, Maczyński Andrzej
In many road safety, traffic management, and travel planning analyses, it is useful to classify road sections according to risk level. Such classification is labour-intensive and needs to be reviewed periodically. The authors propose a model for identifying a discrete risk class for road sections based on selected traffic flow parameters, which are available in most measurement systems monitoring current traffic conditions. The Surrogate Safety Measures approach was applied in the model formulated using Principal Components Analysis. As input to the model SSMs are used in the form of a set of hourly average traffic flow parameters. The SSMs used are: the percentage of light vehicles exceeding the speed limit by a value in the range 21 to 30 km/h; the percentage of light vehicles exceeding the speed limit by more than 30 km/h; the traffic volume of light vehicles; the traffic volume of heavy vehicles and the mean speeds of light vehicles and heavy vehicles.
Thais de Castro Moraes, Jiancheng Qin, Xue-Ming Yuan
et al.
<i>Background:</i> Over the past decade, the potential advantages of employing deep learning models and leveraging auxiliary data in data-driven end-to-end (E2E) frameworks to enhance inventory decision-making have gained recognition. However, current approaches predominantly rely on feed-forward networks, which may have difficulty capturing temporal correlations in time series data and identifying relevant features, resulting in less accurate predictions. <i>Methods:</i> Addressing this gap, we introduce novel E2E deep learning frameworks that combine Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) for resolving single-period inventory ordering decisions, also termed the Newsvendor Problem (NVP). This study investigates the performance drivers of hybrid CNN-LSTM architectures, coupled with an evolving algorithm for optimizing network configuration. <i>Results:</i> Empirical evaluation of real-world retail data demonstrates that our proposed models proficiently extract pertinent features and interpret sequential data characteristics, leading to more accurate and informed ordering decisions. Notably, results showcase substantial benefits, yielding up to an 85% reduction in costs compared to a univariate benchmark and up to 40% savings compared to a feed-forward E2E deep learning architecture. <i>Conclusions</i>: This confirms that, in practical scenarios, understanding the impact of features on demand empowers decision-makers to derive tailored, cost-effective ordering decisions for each store or product category.
Transportation and communication, Management. Industrial management
Amirhosein Karimi, Bahman Ghorbani Vaghei, Mahsa Radkani
et al.
Nowadays, due to the increasing growth of the railway industry and the need to increase safety in trains, component failure must be predicted and identified before it occurs. The direct current motor is one of the most important pieces of equipment in today's industries, especially in the rail transportation industry, and is used in various parts of electric and diesel electric locomotives, such as traction motors, train starters, cooling systems, snow wipers, etc. This article aims to categorize healthy and faulty motors and provide a method to separate them. For this purpose, a number of locomotive starter motor starting current data points have been used. The collected data, half of which are healthy and half of which are defective, are decomposed into nine levels by discrete wavelet transform with the Debuchies4 function, and the detail and estimation coefficients of each data point are calculated by MATLAB software. Unique features of the data were identified to represent it and separate the healthy and defective classes. Before the wavelet transformation, skewness, kurtosis, and root mean square parameters were extracted from all the data. The features showed that the data were intertwined, making it difficult to separate them, and a more complex classifier was needed. However, after applying wavelet transformation, the data was separated at different levels and could be separated from each other with a simple linear classifier.
Góral-Kowalczyk Małgorzata, Góral Dariusz, Nakonieczny Piotr
The transport of temperature sensitive products takes place under special conditions defined by specific agreements and international standards. The only exception to this rule is consumer transport. This transport is carried out by the consumer and takes place on the way home from the shop. The study examined consumers' awareness of the consumer transport of frozen food and analysed this type of transport in terms of the continuity of the cold chain. Such situation affects the deterioration of frozen food quality especially in case of its later storage in the home freezer. It was found that the average distance that customers cover from shop to home was 4.98 km. They usually used a car and covered this distance in an average of 12.85 minutes. During the summer months, this time is sufficient to partially thaw a package of frozen vegetables. Only 33% of the respondents used insulated bags to protect frozen food on the way home. When analysing the transport of frozen raw material carried out by consumers in real conditions, the use of insulated bags was found to be justified. These bags are able to keep the temperature of the packed raw material below −5°C. It was found that the legal imposition of the necessity to use such bags or the introduction by the manufacturer of frozen food of appropriate packaging protecting the food against transport at inappropriate temperatures in the summer months is necessary.
Prior to commencing the voyage planning procedure, the entire navigation area on the forthcoming passage should be divided into several sections, depending on various factors, such as traffic density, restricted depths, availability of ship reporting systems, hydrometeorological conditions, high risk navigation areas in order to outline measures to ensure the safety of ship’s navigation. In addition, these factors have direct impact on the ship’s speed during the voyage. On the other hand, slow steaming can reduce fuel consumption on the same section of the route by 10-15%. Reducing the ship’s speed can significantly minimize its operating costs. However, when choosing economically feasible ship’s speed it should be kept in mind that reducing the speed can lead to a significant decrease in the number of voyages per year and, consequently, to the reduction of annual freight income. Therefore, a practically important and relevant problem is the necessity to find the speed of ship operation, which will provide a balance between economical fuel consumption and profits from ship operation. The classic approach to optimizing the speed mode of ships is based on the cubic dependence of fuel consumption on speed. Therefore, depending on the distance between ports, the duration of the voyage and the conditions for the time of arrival of the ship to the port, in the modern publications were proposed approaches to the optimization of the speed mode, based on the additional income or time-charter equivalent.
<i>Background</i>: Many businesses want to include sustainability in their manufacturing operations. A conventional economic production quantity (EPQ) model is employed to calculate the ideal number of products to manufacture at one time. The goal of this study was to look at the current research on sustainable economic production quantity and supply chain models and suggest prospective future research directions based on existing knowledge gaps. <i>Methods</i>: In this perspective, we used systematic procedures to conduct a survey that included studies from two scenarios: (1a) a sustainable EPQ model that accounts for carbon emissions from inventory storage and manufacture, (1b) a sustainable EPQ model that includes product recycling, and (2) a reverse logistics model that accounts for emissions and product recycling. <i>Results</i>: According to the inquiry, there are reverse logistics models in the literature that consider carbon emissions and product recycling together, but they are not jointly considered for modeling a sustainable EPQ model considering the situation where the manufacturing system is imperfect, although both are vital for ensuring environmental sustainability. <i>Conclusions</i>: In the future, the EPQ model can be developed with these two aspects in mind to understand the effects of product recycling on carbon emissions while controlling production and inventories for an imperfect manufacturing system.
Transportation and communication, Management. Industrial management
Ilyas Masudin, Yulyetha Kurnia Putri Hanifah, Shanty Kusuma Dewi
et al.
<i>Background</i>: The success of e-commerce cannot be separated from a good delivery experience. Meanwhile, research that discusses the quality of logistics services that serve e-commerce by comparing the quality of its competitors in Indonesia is still little discussed. The case study in this research is two logistic service providers in Indonesia. <i>Methods</i>: This study uses the integration of the SIPA method and Kano Modification. Both SIPA and Kano can determine priority and effective strategies to improve service quality. <i>Results</i>: The use of SIPA can identify the importance of service attributes and compare the performance of the two logistics services. A dynamic cycle of service attributes encourages using Kano Modification in this study to expand opportunities for determining managerial strategies. <i>Conclusions</i>: The results in this study provide insight into the main strategies that must be carried out on attributes considered important and maintain quality to be superior to competitors.
Transportation and communication, Management. Industrial management
<i>Background</i>: Within highly complex supply chain networks, driven by the trend of digitalization, supply chain relationship management becomes one of the central enablers in increasing supply chain performance. While the influences of globalization and digitalization on the supply chains are increasing, the power allocation within several markets is centralized to a small number of companies. The objective of this paper is to investigate the research gap concerning the impact of power asymmetries on the supply chain, in addition to the trend of digitalization. <i>Methods</i>: A literature review on power, in the research area of supply chain management and logistics, is used to synthesize the current state of the art in this research field and to provide a comprehensive definition of the concept of power. <i>Conclusions</i>: While this paper provides an overview of the impact of power allocations, according to supply chain digitalization and in the present research of supply chain management, it also develops a definition of Power in Supply Chain Management in general. Linked to this definition, this research elaborates on the research gap between power allocations and the digitalization of the supply chain.
Transportation and communication, Management. Industrial management
A partir das recomendações da Organização Mundial da Saúde quanto à incorporação de novas tecnologias na saúde, o Ministério da Saúde criou políticas para propor uma visão e objetivos de saúde digital no Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). A mais recente é a Estratégia de Saúde Digital para o Brasil 2020-2028 (ESD28). Nesse contexto, o objetivo do presente artigo é identificar em que medida o SUS vem incorporando em seus processos tecnologias de informação e comunicação (TIC) e se adequando a essa nova realidade. Para tanto, o trabalho apresenta alguns conceitos de saúde digital, tendo em vista a pluralidade do termo, e também arrola as principais normativas da Organização Mundial da Saúde e do Ministério da Saúde sobre a temática. Em seguida, discorre-se sobre as principais iniciativas e ações do SUS para a digitalização da saúde. Por fim, são levantadas algumas questões críticas sobre a desigualdade digital no Brasil e a proteção de dados no contexto da implementação da Rede Nacional de Dados em Saúde (RNDS). O método de pesquisa é o dedutivo, a partir de pesquisa documental, normativa e bibliográfica.
Public law, Regulation of industry, trade, and commerce. Occupational law
Whether worldwide or domestic, accounting standards now have a substantial impact on the implementation of fiscal policies and their repercussions. In addition to national accounting standards being adopted by countries, international standards have been approved by international accounting boards and committees. However, due to the strategic importance of this issue in the country that owns the reservoir and the financial structure of oil contracts, the importance of this issue in the oil and gas business has been more significant than in other industries. In Iran, the issue of registration of oil reservoirs is based on domestic and international accounting standards, in addition to analysis based on the principle of government sovereignty over natural resources, the obligations arising from it, and the non-expansion of regressive ownership of oil reservoirs, because there has always been an effort to comply with domestic standards based on international standards.
Non-registration of oil tanks based on the disclosure of information on registered reserves and presentation of financial statements and contractor assets for the decision of contractors and shareholders and presentation of amounts is prohibited in the standards used in the industry, citing international standards such as Standard No. 69 or Financial Reporting. Proven oil and gas reserves can be viewed as extra information, and non-registration of oil reserves is factored into current domestic requirements. Finally, according to the results of this paper, the contractor's registration of oil reservoirs is unlawful.
Regulation of industry, trade, and commerce. Occupational law, Islamic law
Carla Regina Bortolaz de Figueiredo, Flávio Garcia Cabral
O presente artigo trata do desafio da inserção da Inteligência Artificial nas atividades desenvolvidas pela Administração Pública, observando os princípios da boa administração e a concretização de direitos fundamentais. Com isso, faz-se necessário pontuar os marcos legais que tratam do tema e, de maneira sucinta, trazer a discussão acerca dos diferentes tipos de Inteligência Artificial – com destaque para uma técnica de indução inteligente de hipótese, o Machine Learning – e a possível aplicação destes mecanismos na Administração Pública, ressaltando os pontos positivos e negativos destes novos modelos tecnológicos e visualizando os possíveis cenários de impacto causados pela tomada de decisão na Administração Pública e na sociedade.
Public law, Regulation of industry, trade, and commerce. Occupational law
Przedmiotem artykułu jest współdziałanie Inspekcji Ochrony Środowiska z innymi organami i służbami. Uwzględniono najnowsze zmiany ustawy o Inspekcji Ochrony Środowiska z dnia 20 lipca 2018 r. Zwrócono uwagę na to, że aby móc realizować swoje zadania, Inspekcja Ochrony Środowiska została zobowiązania do współdziałania z innymi organami. Wskazano, jaki jest zakres tego współdziałania oraz co powinno ono obejmować. W uwagach końcowych sformułowano wniosek, iż zakres wyznaczony przez ustawodawcę nie jest wystarczający do sprawnego współdziałania. Zaproponowano również rozwiązanie de lege ferenda.
Environmental law, Regulation of industry, trade, and commerce. Occupational law
This research presents a risk-based Hotspots identification model at highway-rail grade crossings in Canada. Two sets of models were developed to predict collision frequency and consequence at individual crossings. A two–dimensional graphic approach was adopted to combine these two models together to predict the risk at each crossing. Hotspots based on collision history tended to be widespread in Canada, while the Hotspot list based on model prediction tended to cluster in the Prairie Region of the country for frequency and the eastern provinces of Ontario and Quebec for consequence. Most Hotspots identified based on collision frequency are located in urban areas with high AADT, while the Hotspots by collision consequence are mostly located in rural areas with high train speed.
Mohammad Ali Sandidzadeh, Tofigh Faizy, Farzaad Soleymaani
New high-speed trains need modern energy management methods to reduce energy consumption. A fuzzy method based control method was used to solve this problem in this paper and evaluated the results on basis of data in Tehran metro line 3. Recovering the maximum amount of train kinetic energy when it is in the braking mode and optimal division of traction systems demand between energy storage system and power supply network, are the fundamentals of control strategy. In this control strategy the reference values of voltage and current of super capacitors (storage system) are calculated according to storage system state of charge and actual speed of train as optimal set points. Simulation results performed on the Tehran metro Line 3 trains, show that after applying the control strategy, optimization of energy consumption, optimal DC link voltage regulation and significant reduction in line peak current and power are obtained.
To achieve the overall goal of realising an efficient and advantageous participation of autonomous ground vehicles in the transport system as fast as possible, a lot of work is being done in different and specific research fields. One of the most important research fields, which has a large impact on safe autonomous ground vehicle realisation, is the development of path planning algorithms. Therefore, this work describes in detail the development and application of a hybrid path planning algorithm. The described algorithm is based on classical and heuristic path planning approaches and can be applied in unstructured and structured environments. The efficiency of the algorithm was investigated by applying the algorithm and executing theoretical and experimental tests. The theoretical and experimental tests were executed while optimising different complexity paths. Results analysis demonstrated that the described algorithm can generate a smooth, dynamically feasible and collision-free path.
Henning Strubelt, Sebastian Trojahn, Sebastian Lang
et al.
The general goal of waste management is to conserve resources and avoid negative environmental impacts. This paper deals with the optimization of logistics processes at an underground waste storage site by means of solving scheduling issues and reducing setup times, with the help of a simulation model. Specific to underground waste storage is the fact that it is often only a side business to actual mining. With limited capacity and resources, all legal requirements must be met, while the business should still be profitable. This paper discusses the improvement of a logistical system’s performance using machine scheduling approaches with the support of a plant simulation model. The process sequence is determined by means of a priority index. Genetic algorithms are then applied to improve the priority index to further increase performance. Results of the simulation model show that the performance of the logistics system can be increased by up to 400 percent, ensuring adequate system performance for current as well as future demand without changes to the system’s capacities and resources.
Transportation and communication, Management. Industrial management
The paper describes an eventual combination of discrete-event simulation and genetic algorithm to define the optimal inventory policy in stochastic multi-product inventory systems. The discrete-event model under consideration corresponds to the just-in-time inventory control system with a flexible reorder point. The system operates under stochastic demand and replenishment lead time. The utilized genetic algorithm is distinguished for a non-binary chromosome encoding, uniform crossover and two mutation operators. The paper contains a detailed description of the optimization technique and the numerical example of six- product inventory model. The proposed approach contributes to the field of industrial engineering by providing a simple, but still efficient way to compute nearly-optimal inventory parameters with regard to risk and reliability policy. Besides, the method may be applied in automated ordering systems.