Hasil untuk "Law of nations"

H. Morgenthau

David Montgomery

Craig Crossland, D. Hambrick

T. Risse, K. Sikkink

A. N. Vylegzhanin, A. A. Batalov, V. A. Abaturova

INTRODUCTION. In the rather extensive modern scientific research on international air law less attention is paid to the analysis of the peculiarities of international legal regulation of international air services in the northern polar region. Considering the development of international transport communication and the search for ways to improve the efficiency and safety of flights in specific parts of our planet, the analysis of prerequisites for the identification of a special regional international legal regime of the Arctic airspace is needed in light of the increasing scale of interstate airflights in the Arctic countries and transboundary (including transpolar) air transportation in the region. Meanwhile, the content of the legal status of civil aviation in the Arctic correlates with the key principle of international air law – the organization of safe and efficient air traffic in this area. In the context of the special climate, geographical, political and historical circumstances of the development of the countries of the Arctic region, the authors of this paper analyze the existing international legal regime governing international air services over the terrestrial and maritime areas of the Arctic States, which form parts of their territory, as well as over the Arctic Ocean beyond this part. The paper also inicates the preconditions for the formation of a corresponding regional international egal regime.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The authors conduct a comprehensive analysis of applicable international treaties, including first and foremost the Convention on International Civil Aviation of 1944 and relevant bilateral air services agreements of the Russian Federation, using the research works of the Russian and foreign legal publicists. Due to the specificity of the subject of the article – international relations of the Arctic States on the regulation of international air services in the North Polar region – the authors applied methods of deduction and induction, as well as formal legal methods, especially while comparing the applicable treaty rules, and the documents of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and national legislation of the Arctic States on the issues of civil aviation in the Arctic airspace.RESEARCH RESULTS. The specific nature of the existing legal regime of international air traffic in the Arctic is described in the paper; a comparative legal analysis of the regulation of international air traffic in the Arctic region before and after the adoption of the 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation with a review of its key rules applicable to air navigation in the Arctic; the relevant bilateral international agreements of the Russian Federation are considered with focus on interpretation of their provisions on the regulation of transpolar international air communications; other applicable legal acts are examined, including documents of the ICAO. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION. Based on the results of the research, the authors have suggested that a regional multilateral international treaty might contribute to the increase of the quality of regulation of international air services in the Arctic. Such a format of cooperation of the arctic and non-arctic States would be effective provided that all the arctic States express their relevant common will and might take into account the work on the relevant international treaty, in particular, the negotiations between the arctic states on the Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic, 2011. For the Russian Federation with its huge transit potential, including that relating to the provision of air traffic services on transpolar routes, the formation of such update international legal regime for the regulation of international air routes in the Arctic is of particular importance.

Artem Artyukhov, Olena Churikanova, Yuliia Yehorova

Given the increasing global concerns over academic dishonesty and its implications for institutional credibility, the relationship between education, governance quality, and academic integrity is a crucial study area. This study aims to examine how education levels and governance quality impact academic integrity by clustering countries based on key indicators such as expected years of schooling, mean years of schooling, rule of law index, and document similarity percentage (a proxy for plagiarism). The analysis includes data from over 100 countries, spanning both developing and developed nations, with indicators drawn from sources such as the UNDP Human Development Reports, the World Bank’s Rule of Law Index for the year 2022, and aggregated similarity scores from Plagiarism Checker X for the 01.02.2025. These indicators were selected to represent educational attainment, institutional governance quality, and observed academic originality, allowing for a multidimensional statistical clustering approach. The k-means clustering algorithm was applied to identify natural groupings of countries, with the optimal number of clusters determined using the elbow method, silhouette scores, and Davies-Bouldin index to ensure robustness. Using k-means clustering, the research identifies two distinct country groups and analyses their characteristics to explore systemic influences on academic behaviours. The findings reveal that nations with higher education levels and more substantial governance structures exhibit lower similarity percentages, indicating more extraordinary originality and stronger academic integrity practices. Conversely, countries with lower education levels and weaker governance tend to have higher similarity percentages, suggesting challenges in upholding academic integrity. These results highlight the need for targeted interventions to improve governance and educational policies to strengthen academic integrity globally.

Amit Bengiat, Teddy Lazebnik, Philipp Mayr et al.

Academic grant programs are widely used to motivate international research collaboration and boost scientific impact across borders. Among these, bi-national funding schemes -- pairing researchers from just two designated countries - are common yet understudied compared with national and multinational funding. In this study, we explore whether bi-national programs genuinely foster new collaborations, high-quality research, and lasting partnerships. To this end, we conducted a bibliometric case study of the German-Israeli Foundation (GIF), covering 642 grants, 2,386 researchers, and 52,847 publications. Our results show that GIF funding catalyzes collaboration during, and even slightly before, the grant period, but rarely produces long-lasting partnerships that persist once the funding concludes. By tracing co-authorship before, during, and after the funding period, clustering collaboration trajectories with temporally-aware K-means, and predicting cluster membership with ML models (best: XGBoost, 74% accuracy), we find that 45% of teams with no prior joint work become active while funded, yet activity declines symmetrically post-award; roughly one-third sustain collaboration longer-term, and a small subset achieve high, lasting output. Moreover, there is no clear pattern in the scientometrics of the team's operating as a predictor for long-term collaboration before the grant. This refines prior assumptions that international funding generally forges enduring networks. The results suggest policy levers such as sequential funding, institutional anchoring (centers, shared infrastructure, mobility), and incentives favoring genuinely new pairings have the potential to convert short-term boosts into resilient scientific bridges and inform the design of bi-national science diplomacy instruments.

Youssef Shaker, Jun Wen Law, Audun Botterud et al.

Policies focused on deep decarbonization of regional economies emphasize electricity sector decarbonization alongside electrification of end-uses. There is growing interest in utilizing hydrogen (H2) produced via electricity to displace fossil fuels in difficult-to-electrify sectors. One such case is heavy-duty vehicles (HDV), which represent a substantial and growing share of transport emissions as light-duty vehicles electrify. Here, we assess the bulk energy system impact of decarbonizing the HDV segment via either H2, or drop-in synthetic liquid fuels produced from H2 and CO2. Our analysis soft-links two modeling approaches: (a) a bottom-up transport demand model producing a variety of final energy demand scenarios for the same service demand and (b) a multi-sectoral capacity expansion model that co-optimizes power, H2 and CO2 supply chains under technological and policy constraints to meet exogenous final energy demands. Through a case study of Western Europe in 2040 under deep decarbonization constraints, we quantify the energy system implications of different levels of H2 and synthetic fuels adoption in the HDV sector under scenarios with and without CO2 sequestration. In the absence of CO2 storage, substitution of liquid fossil fuels in HDVs is essential to meet the deep decarbonization constraint across the modeled power, H2 and transport sectors. Additionally, utilizing H2 HDVs reduces decarbonization costs and fossil liquids demand, but could increase natural gas consumption. While H2 HDV adoption reduces the need for direct air capture (DAC), synthetic fuel adoption increases DAC investments and total system costs. The study highlights the trade-offs across transport decarbonization pathways, and underscores the importance of multi-sectoral consideration in decarbonization studies.

Sherene H. Razack

Three stereotypical figures have come to represent the 'war on terror' - the 'dangerous' Muslim man, the 'imperilled' Muslim woman, and the 'civilized' European. Casting Out explores the use of these characterizations in the creation of the myth of the family of democratic Western nations obliged to use political, military, and legal force to defend itself against a menacing third world population. It argues that this myth is promoted to justify the expulsion of Muslims from the political community, a process that takes the form of stigmatization, surveillance, incarceration, torture, and bombing. In this timely and controversial work, Sherene H. Razack looks at contemporary legal and social responses to Muslims in the West and places them in historical context. She explains how 'race thinking,' a structure of thought that divides up the world between the deserving and undeserving according to racial descent, accustoms us to the idea that the suspension of rights for racialized groups is warranted in the interests of national security. She discusses many examples of the institution and implementation of exclusionary and coercive practices, including the mistreatment of security detainees, the regulation of Muslim populations in the name of protecting Muslim women, and prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib. She explores how the denial of a common bond between European people and those of different origins has given rise to the proliferation of literal and figurative 'camps,' places or bodies where liberties are suspended and the rule of law does not apply. Combining rich theoretical perspectives and extensive research, Casting Out makes a major contribution to contemporary debates on race and the 'war on terror' and their implications in areas such as law, politics, cultural studies, feminist and gender studies, and race relations.

Lady Juliana Guevara Flórez, John Fernando Restrepo Tamayo, Yuli Marisol Moncayo Enríquez

Este artículo busca determinar cuáles son las causales que conllevan a la desnaturalización de los contratos de prestación de servicios y devienen en un verdadero vínculo laboral de acuerdo con la jurisprudencia del Consejo de Estado entre los años 2016 y 2022. Para ello se llevó a cabo una investigación de tipo mixto con un paradigma analítico y hermenéutico, a través de un método inductivo. La principal conclusión es que son las actuaciones de las autoridades, en el marco de la celebración de los contratos de prestación de servicios, las que terminan desnaturalizando este contrato y convirtiendo la relación contractual en un vínculo laboral.

Charles J. Law, Myriam Benisty, Stefano Facchini et al.

PDS 70 hosts two massive, still-accreting planets and the inclined orientation of its protoplanetary disk presents a unique opportunity to directly probe the vertical gas structure of a planet-hosting disk. Here, we use high-spatial-resolution (${\approx}$0."1;10 au) observations in a set of CO isotopologue lines and HCO$^+$ J=4-3 to map the full 2D $(r,z)$ disk structure from the disk atmosphere, as traced by $^{12}$CO, to closer to the midplane, as probed by less abundant isotopologues and HCO$^+$. In the PDS 70 disk, $^{12}$CO traces a height of $z/r\approx0.3$, $^{13}$CO is found at $z/r\approx0.1$, and C$^{18}$O originates at, or near, the midplane. The HCO$^+$ surface arises from $z/r\approx0.2$ and is one of the few non-CO emission surfaces constrained with high fidelity in disks to date. In the $^{12}$CO J=3-2 line, we resolve a vertical dip and steep rise in height at the cavity wall, making PDS 70 the first transition disk where this effect is directly seen in line emitting heights. In the outer disk, the CO emission heights of PDS 70 appear typical for its stellar mass and disk size and are not substantially altered by the two inner embedded planets. By combining CO isotopologue and HCO$^+$ lines, we derive the 2D gas temperature structure and estimate a midplane CO snowline of ${\approx}$56-85 au. This implies that both PDS 70b and 70c are located interior to the CO snowline and are likely accreting gas with a high C/O ratio of ${\approx}$1.0, which provides context for future planetary atmospheric measurements from, e.g., JWST, and for properly modeling their formation histories.

LOURENÇO Isabel, TEIXEIRA Jorge

The Frente POLISARIO, a liberation movement that aimed to achieve freedom of the then Spanish Sahara, was funded in 1973. In 1976, one year after the invasion of Morocco and Mauritania of Western Sahara, POLISARIO proclaimed, in the name of the Saharawi People, the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). Western Sahara has been on the United Nations’ list of Non-Self-Governing Territories under Chapter XI of the UN Charter, since 1963. Forty-seven years later, the fight for the future of Western Sahara still ensues. Despite all judicial decisions against its claim, Morocco still occupies Western Sahara and proclaims it is part of its national territory. On the other side, Frente POLISARIO, adhering to International Law and their legitimate rights to Self- Determination, still fights. Morocco resorts to a mix of tactics: war, propaganda, fake news, defamation, imprisonment of dissidents, human rights violations, and Geopolitical Alliances. In 1991, under the auspices of the UN and AU, an agreement on a Referendum to determine the Liberation of Western Sahara or the Annexation into the Kingdom of Morocco was achieved, but was never materialized. A UN Mission, Misión de las Naciones Unidas para la Organización de un Referéndum en el Sáhara Occidental (MINURSO), was established. Morocco, however, did not respect the terms of the agreement, boycotting the referendum. Between 1991 and 2020, a cease-fire was in place. In November 2020, a Moroccan military assault against a peaceful protest of Saharawi civilians against a new breach of Military Agreement No. 1 triggered Frente POLISARIO to declare the cease-fire null and void and to resume military action. In this paper, we will try to clarify what the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic is and what Frente POLISARIO is. To achieve our goals, we have examined the SADR Constitution and how the political actors implement the ideas and ideals of the Constitution reflected on Frente POLISARIO. Our analysis has found a country ready and able to implement the structure of a functioning Modern Democratic State with the necessary prepared human resources.

Revista Mexicana de Historia del Derecho

Xinbing Wang, Luoyi Fu, Huquan Kang et al.

Three influential laws, namely Sarnoff's Law, Metcalfe's Law, and Reed's Law, have been established to describe network value in terms of the number of neighbors, edges, and subgraphs. Here, we highlight the coexistence of these laws in citation networks for the first time, utilizing the Deep-time Digital Earth academic literature. We further introduce a novel concept called the sublinear knowledge law, which demonstrates that knowledge growth is notably slower than both the growth rate of network size and the rates outlined by the aforementioned traditional laws. These results offer an innovative perspective while also filling a gap regarding network value.

Kirstin R. W. Matthews, Daniel Moralí

Research using human embryos and embryoids has expanded in recent years due to technological advances. Surveying laws and guidelines among the top research and development (R&D) investing nations highlights existing barriers to expanding this area of research. Of the 22 nations surveyed, we found 12 countries with a 14-day limit, one with a seven-day limit, five with prohibitions and four without national laws or guidelines that limit or prohibit human embryo research. Sixteen national laws or guidelines define an embryo or related entities, with five nations limiting human embryoid research. Other laws are ambiguous in relation to embryoid research, leave unanswered questions regarding what research is permitted or restricted and need additional clarity for researchers.

O. A. Ogunsanya, C. Aigbavboa, D. Thwala et al.

Abstract Research into the application of sustainable procurement in construction projects is nascent with the few prominent studies carried out in the developed nations. Of particular interest is how developing nations are rising to the challenge of development and using their procurements strategically. One way the construction industry helps to achieve sustainable development is through its procurement activities. Previous studies show that Nigeria is embracing sustainable procurement however the uptake is slow. Therefore, this research sets out to evaluate the factors that constitute barriers to sustainable procurement of publicly funded construction projects in Nigeria. A questionnaire survey was used to evaluate construction industry professionals' perspective on the barriers to sustainable procurement in Nigeria. Three hundred and twenty questionnaires were returned and used for analysis. Out of the nineteen variables tested, factor analysis reveals four clusters named in other of significance as sustainability knowledge level, transparency and governance, mismatch of procurement strategy and national policy challenges, and construction industry related factors. This study recommends that mitigating these challenges will require improving sustainability knowledge among project stakeholders, ensuring transparency and good governance, adapting procurement laws with sustainability clauses and construction industry development.

N. A. Safarov

INTRODUCTION. The legal saga of the prosecution of Adolf Eichmann, one of the most wanted war criminals and chief “architect” of the Holocaust, raises many ethical, political and legal problems. The Eichmann trial is unprecedented in the long history of international criminal law for many reasons. Although many leaders of Nazi regime were put on trial at Nuremberg before International Military Tribunal, mass killings and other outrageous crimes against Jews was not the main object of the trial. Thereby prosecution and punishment one of the most important organizers of the genocide of Jewish people, creator of new type of evil and new type of crime, become the great task of the State of Israel.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The theoretical basis of the study consists of the works of leading international lawyers specializing in international criminal law, as well as the international extradition of criminals; the analytical base comprises of the decisions of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal, as well as the national courts of the State of Israel, in particular the cult decision the Attorney General of the Government of Israel v. Adolf Eichmann, as well as the decisions of the national courts of the United States, cited in the article for the purpose of comparative analysis. The methodological basis of the research comprises historical method, methods of formal logic, including analysis, synthesis and analogy, as well as systemic, comparative legal methods and method of interpretation.RESEARCH RESULTS. Based on the study of international legal instruments and international judicial practice, as well as the national legislation of the State of Israel, the author made conclusions related to the abduction of accused from the territory of a foreign state, in particular its consequences in the form of violation of the sovereignty of the state. At the same time, the article contains a statement that the unlawfulness of the arrest does not prevent the court from exercising jurisdiction over the person. In the context of the administration of justice by the State of Israel, the author analyzes the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees of December 14, 1951, paying special attention to the problem of the possible immunity of the accused based on the refugee status granted by the state.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. In the course of the study, the author analyzed a significant amount of materials, summarized the doctrinal positions put forward by a number of prominent international scholars, and also formed the conclusion that the trial of Eichmann marked not only the administration of justice over the international criminal, but also provided another opportunity for a broad international publicity of the horrors of the Nazi regime and the need to unite collective efforts of states to save future generations from such international crimes.

Philip James Purnell

As sustainability becomes an increasing priority throughout global society, academic and research institutions are assessed on their contribution to relevant research publications. This study compares four methods of identifying research publications related to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 13: climate action. The four methods, Elsevier, STRINGS, SIRIS, and Dimensions have each developed search strings with the help of subject matter experts which are then enhanced through distinct methods to produce a final set of publications. Our analysis showed that the methods produced comparable quantities of publications but with little overlap between them. We visualised some difference in topic focus between the methods and drew links with the search strategies used. Differences between publications retrieved are likely to come from subjective interpretation of the goals, keyword selection, operationalising search strategies, AI enhancements, and selection of bibliographic database. Each of the elements warrants deeper investigation to understand their role in identifying SDG-related research. Before choosing any method to assess the research contribution to SDGs, end users of SDG data should carefully consider their interpretation of the goal and determine which of the available methods produces the closest dataset. Meanwhile data providers might customise their methods for varying interpretations of the SDGs.

M. Hamed Mohammady, Takayuki Miyadera

In the quantum regime, the third law of thermodynamics implies the unattainability of pure states. As shown recently, such unattainability implies that a unitary interaction between the measured system and a measuring apparatus can never implement an ideal projective measurement. In this paper, we introduce an operational formulation of the third law for the most general class of physical transformations, the violation of which is both necessary and sufficient for the preparation of pure states. Subsequently, we investigate how such a law constrains measurements of general observables, or positive operator valued measures. We identify several desirable properties of measurements which are simultaneously enjoyed by ideal projective measurements -- and are hence all ruled out by the third law in such a case -- and determine if the third law allows for these properties to obtain for general measurements of general observables and, if so, under what conditions. It is shown that while the third law rules out some of these properties for all observables, others may be enjoyed by observables that are sufficiently "unsharp".

Julián Santaella-Tenorio, M. Cerdá, A. Villaveces et al.