Finnish had begun to be written in the 16th century, and the language of Mikael Agricola represents the oldest written Finnish. Agricola’s language differs in many ways from contemporary Finnish. This article examines the NUT participle variation found in the Finnish used by Agricola, which no longer exists in the contemporary language.
This study answers whether there are statistically significant variations between NUT participle types caused by linguistic variables. The research shows that phonological variables affect NUT participle variation more than morphological ones. NUT participle variants form an interesting network: variables pair up or group variants so that variables favour a certain variant(s) and alternatively reject other(s).
The overall importance of the variables in selecting a participle was also examined by applying a machine learning classifier algorithm. The most important features in this selection were the stem vowel, if the word has back or front vowels, person and tense.
Kokkuvõte. Heidi Salmi, Jussi Salmi: Soome keele vokaaltüvelise NUT-kesksõna varieerumine Mikael Agricola töödes. Soome keelt hakati kirjutama 16. sajandil ja Mikael Agricola tööd esindavad vanimat soome kirjakeelt. Agricola keel erineb mitmel moel tänapäeva soome keelest. Käesolevas artiklis uuritakse soome keele NUT-kesksõna variatsiooni mida Agricla on kasutanud, kuid mis tänapäeva soome keeles enam ei esine.
Artiklis käsitletakse küsimust kas keelematerjalis on näha statistiliselt olulisi keeleliste muutujate põhjustatud NUT-kesksõna tüüpide variante. Uurimus osutab, et häälikulised muutujad mõjutavad NUT-kesksõna variatsiooni rohkem kui morfoloogilised muutujad. NUT-kesksõnade variandid moodustavad huvitava võrgustiku: muutujad loovad paare või rühmi nii, et teatud variant (variandid) on eelistatumad ja vastavalt teised mitte.
Muutujate laiemat tähendust kesksõna valimisel on vaadeldud ka masinõppimise klassifitseerimise algorütmi kasutades. Siin osutus kõige tähtsamaks omaduseks tüvevokaal, sõnas esinev taga- või eesvokaal või ajatunnus.
This paper examines the syntax and functions of the discourse particles no and nu in narratives and conversations recorded from speakers of Soikkola Ingrian in 2006–2013. The Ingrian particle no is probably Finnic in origin, while the particle nu was most likely borrowed from the Russian language. The goal of this research is to find out how different or similar no and nu are in contemporary Ingrian from the point of view of their syntactic positions and functions. Four structural positions are distinguished, in relation to the position of the particle in a turn and in a clause, and no striking differences are observed in the distribution of no and nu across positions. The typical functions of no and nu are analysed separately in each of the four structural positions, and the functional range is found to be similar for both particles. It is also notable that in the Russian speech of Ingrian speakers, no is sometimes used as a discourse particle, although this would not be possible in standard Russian. The research concludes that at the period under investigation the two particles were on the way to complete merger, and can be treated as phonetic variants in a synchronic description of Ingrian, despite the quantitative prevalence of no over nu.
Kokkuvõte. Elena Markus: Isuri diskursusepartiklite no ja nu süntaks ja funktsioonid. Artikkel uurib diskursusepartiklite no ja nu süntaksit ja funktsioone narratiivides ja isuri keele Soikkola murde kõnelejate vestluste salvestistes aastatel 2006–2013. Isuri partikkel no on ilmselt läänemeresoome päritolu, partikkel nu on aga tõenäoliselt laenatud vene keelest. Uurimuse eesmärk on välja selgitada, kui erinevad või sarnased on no ja nu tänapäeva isuri keeles süntaktiliste positsioonide ja funktsioonide poolest. Eristada võib nelja struktuurpositsiooni sõltuvalt partikli asukohast kõnevoorus ja lausungis, positsioonist lähtuvalt aga no ja nu vahel suuri erinevusi märgata ei olnud. Partiklitele tüüpilisi funktsioone analüüsiti eraldi igas struktuurpositsioonis ning selgus, et ka funktsioonide ulatus on mõlema partikli puhul sarnane. On ka märkimisväärne, et isuri keele kõnelejad kasutavad partiklit no diskursusepartiklina vahel ka vene keeles, kuigi vene keele standardis selline kasutus võimalik ei ole. Uurimusest järeldub, et vaadeldaval ajaperioodil on kaks partiklit üheks liitumas ning neid võib isuri keele sünkroonilises kirjelduses käsitleda kui foneetilisi variante, kuigi kvantitatiivselt on partikkel no eelistatum kui partikkel nu.
In addition to individual words, the mental lexicon stores lexical chunks, such as idioms, which provide foreign-language learners with the capacity to acquire the language more effectively. Since the role the parts play in the meaning of the whole reduces the learning burden of multi-word expressions, the present contribution addresses the facilitating effect of idiom transparency and learners’ tendency to utilise it in the comprehension process of unfamiliar English-as-a-foreignlanguage idioms. Moreover, as foreign-language learners automatically tend to look for similarities between languages, it was hypothesised that adolescent Estonian (pre)intermediate English-language learners, first and foremost, utilise native-language knowledge in the comprehension process of unfamiliar English idioms. A think-aloud study, which was carried out to provide an in-depth understanding of their strategies, revealed that whereas the majority of the informants relied on semantic analysis, the recourse-to-native-language strategy was more successful.
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Eesti teismeliste inglise keele kui võõrkeele idioomide mõistmisstrateegiad
Võõrkeele valmisväljendid nõuavad vähem vaimset pingutust ja neid saab kiirelt nii mõista kui ka kasutada. Eelkõige on oluline nendest arusaamine, kuna kõnelejad võivad ennast väljendada ka uudsete fraasidega, samas kui suutmatus idioome mõista võib põhjustada kommunikatsiooniprobleeme. Käesoleva uuringu eesmärk oli välja selgitada, milliseid arusaamise strateegiaid eesti emakeelega teismelised inglise keele kui võõrkeele tundmatute idioomide jaoks kasutavad ning kas strateegiate tõhususes ilmneb erinevusi. Andmete kogumise meetodina kasutati valjult mõtlemise protokolli.
Andmed näitasid, et õpilased eelistasid semantilist analüüsi idioomide tähenduse leidmiseks. Teataval määral toetuti ka teadmistele emakeelsetest idioomidest ning kontekstile hoolimata sellest, et konteksti määr oli minimaalne. Kõige tõhusamaks viisiks idioomi õige tähenduse leidmisel osutus emakeelest saadav tugi.
Kogutud andmete põhjal võib anda mõningaid soovitusi idioomide õpetamise kohta. Kuna uurimistulemused viitasid emakeele toele kui kõige edukamale idioomide mõistmise strateegiale, tasuks keeleõppe algtasemel alustada idioomidega, millel on kas identne või sarnane eestikeelne vaste (eriti veel sellistega, millel on lisaks sõnasõnaliselt mõistetav koostisosa). Tulemuste põhjal on õpilastel tõenäoliselt vaja õppida idioome ka emakeeles. Sarnaste eestikeelsete vastete puhul tuleb arvestada ka õpetajapoolse sekkumise suurema vajadusega, et takistada võimalikku negatiivset ülekannet. Kuna tulemused viitasid ka sellele, et edasijõudnumad õpilased eelistavad pigem semantilist analüüsi, siis keeleõpetajad võiksid suunata õppijate tähelepanu idioomi eri omadustele (nt emakeele ja võõrkeele idioomide identsusele/sarnasusele ja läbipaistvusele) ning juhendada neid kasutama erinevaid strateegiaid.
Uuringudisainist tulenevad piirangud rõhutavad edasise teadustöö vajadust. Lisauurimist vääriksid strateegiaeelistuste võimalikud põhjused: vähene emakeele idioomide tundmine, keeleoskustase, idioomide omadused japuudulik võime mõista kujundlikku keelt.
"On the metaphorical use of personal pronouns and verb forms in Estonian and Russian".
The article is devoted to the metaphorical use of personal pronouns and their respective verb forms in Russian and Estonian. Personal pronouns is one of the first topics that is introduced to the learner of any language. In Russian and Estonian the systems of personal pronouns are quite similar, however their meta phorical use is not identical in these languages. Some metaphorical uses are regular in Russian but are not common in Estonian; it depends on the cultural and linguistic traditions of the language in question. While most cases of the metaphorical use of personal pronouns and related verb forms are nonetheless the same in Estonian and Russian, one can still point out some dissimilarities.
Grammatikaõpe on teise keele formaalõppe oluline osa. Tõhus grammatikaõpe peaks olema kommunikatiivne ehk arendama keeleõppijate oskust kasutada grammatikat suhtluses ladusalt, olukohaselt ja paindlikult. Artiklis otsitakse vastust küsimustele, milliseid grammatikaõppe võtteid põhikooli eesti keele kui teise keele tunnis kasutatakse ning mil määral need vastavad tänapäevastele kommunikatiivse grammatikaõppe põhimõtetele. Vastuse saamiseks on viidud läbi juhtumianalüüs ühe suure kooli kaheksanda ja seitsmenda klassi õpperühmade eesti keele kui teise keele 16 tunnis. Tegemist on suunda andva uuringuga, mis tõstatab olulisi küsimusi, mille uurimist tuleks edaspidi jätkata ulatuslikuma materjali põhjal.
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How to teach the grammar of Estonian as a second language to basic school students? Case study ***
Grammar learning is an important part of formal second language learning. Effective grammar learning should be communicative, i.e. develop language learners’ ability to use grammar fluently, appropriately and flexibly in communication. The article looks for an answer to the questions: which grammar teaching techniques are used in the Estonian as a second language class in basic school and to what extent they correspond to the modern principles of communicative grammar teaching.
In order to get answers, a case study has been conducted in the Estonian as a second language classes of the eighth and seventh grade study groups (n = 16) of a large school. The class observations were carried out by one of the authors of the article, who was a student at the University of Tartu at the time of the observations, on the assumption that the student’s presence in the class has the least impact on both the teacher and the students. Observations took place in four different teachers’ 45-minute classes with an average of 15 students. The observed lessons were randomly selected from the lesson plan according to times suitable for the observer and in agreement with the teacher conducting the lesson.
Of the observed lessons, four were fully devoted to grammar teaching and three were partially devoted to grammar teaching. Lessons were analyzed with directed content analysis based on categories derived from the theory. The results showed that a little over a third of the total time of the observed lessons was spent on grammar. More time was spent explaining grammar than practicing. The explanations were mostly deductive, the students themselves made few discoveries about the language. Practice mostly consisted of written contextfree and artificial tasks. Grammar learning was little related to the general topics, life and sub-skills being studied. In the case of all grammatical phenomena to be studied, the focus was on their forms and, in some classes, to some extent also on their meaning. The usage function was somewhat dealt with in just one lesson. Students could not practice using the learned grammar in active natural communication in unprepared improvisational situations. There were few tasks that corresponded to the interests of basic school students. The language phenomena being studied seemed mostly affordable to the students, but the fact that students almost did not use them in communication makes it difficult to assess the actual affordability of the topics.
In summary, the grammar study of the eighth and seventh grades of the school under consideration was very traditional in the lessons of Estonian as a second language, and there were very few elements of communicative grammar study. In this way, students cannot have a real sense of the meaning and usage function of the grammatical phenomena they are learning. Also, the automaticity for using grammar does not develop, and students are not able to use the grammar topics they learn fluently, situationally and flexibly in real communication. If the learning is not interesting, then the students are not absorbed in the learning, which has a negative effect on learning motivation and which reduces the effectiveness of learning.
The research results cannot be generalized to Estonian as a second language classes in all basic schools in Estonia. It is an indicative study that raises important questions, which should be continued in the future on the basis of more extensive material.
Õpilaste eesti keele kui teise keele ebapiisava oskuse peapõhjuseks peetakse sageli madalat õpimotivatsiooni, mis arvatakse tulenevat kodust ja ühiskonnast ehk kultuurikontekstist. Samal ajal saab vähem tähelepanu hariduskonteksti, sh õppetundides toimuva mõju õpimotivatsioonile. Artiklis antakse ülevaade eksperimendist, mille käigus uuriti, kas ja kuidas mõjutavad õppetegevused õpilaste suhtumist eesti keele tundidesse, mis on oluline õpimotivatsiooni komponent. Kuuele üheksanda klassi .pperühmale õpetati kord nädalas eesti keelt ainult mängustatud õppetegevuste abil. Enne eksperimenti täitsid õpilased kirjaliku ankeetküsitluse, milles hindasid eesti keele tavatunde kümne teguri osas ja vastasid ka avatud küsimustele. Pärast eksperimenti täitsid õpilased küsimustiku, milles hindasid mängustatud tunde samade tegurite osas. Selgus, et õppetegevuste muutmine muutis õpilaste keskmist suhtumist eesti keele tundidesse. Mängustatud tunde peeti kokkuvõttes tavatundidest märgatavalt lõbusamaks ja kergemaks, samas aga vähem kasulikuks ja vajalikuks. Hinnangud mängustatud tundide mitmele aspektile varieerusid rühmiti üsna palju. Seejuures oli märgata seost hea tunniõhustiku ja tundidesse positiivse suhtumise vahel.
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"The effect of gamified learning activities on the attitudes of 9th grade pupils towards lessons of Estonian as a second language"
Learning motivation and attitudes towards studying are considered to be among the essential factors influencing academic results. Despite this, teachers often underrate the part that learning activities, methods and materials play in forming pupils’ motivations and attitudes (Metslang et al. 2013). Both Gardner (2007) and Dörnyei (1994, 2001) consider the specific learning situation, or events happening in the classroom, as an important factor of learning motivation.
This article focuses on teachers’ options to affect pupils’ attitudes towards Estonian lessons via gamified learning activities. The term gamification is generally defined “the use of game design elements in a nongame context” (Deterding et al. 2011). This study involved an experiment with 9th graders in a Russian-language school in Tallinn, Estonia. During the three-month experiment, six learning groups had a weekly Estonian language lesson, where the language was exclusively studied with gamified learning activities. The teacher in their first year at the school prepared and taught these lessons using a variety of materials. The other Estonian lessons were taught by other teachers in a more traditional manner.
The pupils were instructed to answer a questionnaire both at the beginning and the end of the experiment. Before the experiment, 67 pupils commented on and evaluated their experiences of Estonian lessons taken during a period of eight years. After the experiment, 77 pupils commented on and evaluated their experiences of gamified Estonian lessons. The pupils evaluated the lessons in a Likert scale (1–7) according to ten factors (usefulness, necessity, interest, activeness, variance, modernity, fun, energy, atmosphere, ease) and commented the learning activities.
The pupils evaluated the traditional lessons of Estonian language as the second language rather highly. The usefulness (6 on average) and necessity (5.6) were evaluated the highest. Modernity (4.9.), interest (4.6), atmosphere (4.6), variance (4.4), activity (4.3) were also rated above average. Two factors had ratings beyond the average: energy (3.7) and fun (3.5).
In the gamified lessons, compared to the traditional lessons of eight years, the factor of fun increased the most (from 3.5 to 5.5, an increase of two). The ratings of energy and ease (1.3) were also higher. However, the evaluations of usefulness and necessity of gamified lessons were lower. The average ratings of usefulness fell respectively by one (from 5.6 of the traditional lessons to 4.6) and 0.7 (from 6 to 5.3). The average evaluations of other factors did not show notable differences. Notably, evaluations varied both by groups and individually.
The paper presents a corpus-based description of the noun phrase structure in Enets dealing with both Enets dialects – Forest Enets and Tundra Enets. An Enets noun phrase has six slots for modifiers: determiner, relative clause, possessor NP, numeral, adjective phrase, apposed NP. Determiners, relative clauses, and adjective phrases are subject to linear recursion, other modifiers are not. All modifiers precede the head NP. In Enets, there is no agreement between head noun and modifiers, but numerals have different patterns in the choice of head noun number form.
Kokkuvõte. Andrej Šluinski: Noomenifraas eenetsi keeles. Artikkel esitab korpuspõhise kirjelduse eenetsi keele noomenifraasi struktuurist mõlemas eenetsi keele murdes – metsaeenetsi ja tundraeenetsi. Eenetsi noomenifraasil on kuus täiendikohta: määratleja, relatiivlause, omajat väljendav NP, numeraal, omadussõnafraas, appositsiooniline NP. Määratlejad, relatiivlaused ja omadussõnafraasid alluvad lineaarsele rekursioonile, teised täiendid mitte. Kõik täiendid eelnevad põhisõnale. Eenetsi keeles puudub põhisõna ja täiendi ühilduvus, kui numeraalid nõuavad noomenifraasi põhisõnalt erinevaid arvuvorme.
Аннотация. Андрей Шлуинский: Именная группа в энецком языке. В статье представлено выполненное на материале корпуса текстов описание структуры именной группы в обоих диалектах энецкого языка – лесном тундровом. Энецкая именная группа содержит шесть позиций для модификаторов вершинного существительного: детерминатор, относительное предложение, именная группа посессора, числительное, группа прилагательного, соположенная именная группа. Детерминаторы, относительные предложения и группы прилагательного подлежат линейной рекурсии, в отличие от других модификаторов. Все модификаторы предшествуют вершинному существительному. В энецком языке отсутствует согласование между вершинным существительным и модификаторами, но представлены разные модели выбора числовой формы вершинного существительного в именных группах с числительными.
Translation of colour terms hovers somewhere between cognitive linguistics and translation studies and has therefore remained relatively understudied as a topic, despite the popularity of cross-linguistic colour term studies in the languages of the world. Although colour terms form a relatively small and restricted semantic domain, translating a colour term into another language can cause a massive headache to anyone who has ever tried to seek an appropriate equivalent for it in another language. The article describes how a group of translators and non-translators translated single, mainly simplex secondary colour terms from English into Estonian. Four main translation strategies can be discerned: literal translation, abstraction change or hyponymy, information change or omission and descriptive translation techniques. In addition, the study shows that translation experience and translation education is an advantage even if one translates small units of texts.
Kokkuvõte. Mari Uusküla: Empiiriline lähenemine värvinimede tõlkimisele inglise-eesti suunal. Värvinimede tõlkimist võiks pidada keele teaduse ja tõlketeaduse siirdealaks, kuna tõlketeadus tegeleb põhiliselt suuremate üksuste uurimisega kui selleks on sõnad, kognitiivne semantika aga huvitub ka üksiksõnadest. Teemat võib pidada aktuaalseks ja uudseks, sest värvi nimede tõlkimist on süstemaatiliselt uuritud vähe sellele vaatamata, et huvi värvinimede vastu eri maailma keeltes on jätkuvalt suur. Artikkel kirjeldab, kuidas kakskümmend vabatahtlikku, kelle hulgas leidus nii tõlkijaid kui ka mittetõlkijaid (s.t. inimesi, kes oma igapäevaelus ega -töös tõlkimisega ei tegele), tõlkisid inglise keelest eesti keelde kakskümmend objektist tuletatud värvinime (nt lemon, chocolate ja rose). Värvinimede tõlkimisel kerkis esile neli põhilist tõlkestrateegiat: otsetõlge, abstraheerimine või hüponüümia kasutamine, informatsiooni muutmine või väljajätt ning kirjeldav tõlge. Lisaks näitab läbiviidud uurimus, et tõlke kogemusega ja tõlkeharidust omavatel inimestel on tõlkimisel selge eelis, isegi kui tõlgitavateks üksusteks on üksiksõnad.
Thirty years after the dissolution of the totalitarian regime in Romania, due to various reasons, most of the names of those who were forced to leave the country and choose the exile remained practically unknown to the general public, in spite of the fact that a good part of them contributed to the maintenance of a certain Romanian anti-communist resistance worldwide. One of these names is Eugen Lozovan, a distinguished scholar and a voice of the Romanian intellectual dissent from the end of the 1950s until the 1980s. Since the importance of his work as a linguist, historian, and philologist began to be widely acknowledged in his native country within the last decades, it seems of equal importance to consider his opposition towards the communist regime which controlled Romania from 1947 until 1989. He permanently took a stance and expressed his opinions through various texts published in Romanian periodicals from Western Europe, which necessarily add to the memory of the general intellectual anti-communist resistance. This is one of the reasons why in the present text we try to underline his figure and his contributions published in exile in order to better understand the significance and the impact they had for the Romanian intellectual dissent.
Originally written by Henrik Ibsen in 1882, An Enemy of the People was adapted in 1950 by the American playwright Arthur Miller, and this adaptation was the one taken into consideration by the director Claudiu Goga when staging the play at the “Vasile Alecsandri” National Theatre in Iași in 2016. In this paper, we aim to analyze the reception of the play in Iași by also pointing out the differences between Henrik Ibsen’s original, Arthur Miller’s adaptation and Claudiu Goga’s staging and showing that any adaptation of a text leads in fact to a new piece of work. Goga’s staging enjoyed favorable reviews, probably also due to the possible identification of the audience with the social-political realities in Romania.
Publishing scientific articles in English is often a prerequisite for academic success. Thus, developing effective pedagogies to support Estonian university students develop writing skills in L2 (English) is becoming increasingly more important. One such method is by forming small writing groups where each member periodically gives written feedback on their colleague’s writing. Here, the affective language used in the written communication between the reviewer and writer may strongly influence their relationship. This in turn may have a significant impact on the writing process. This study describes the development of a novel taxonomy to measure the cumulative effect of affective factors by accounting for the uniqueness of each individual, and how they project their distinct personalities or ‘social presence’ to build rapport within the group. The hypothesis is that individuals exhibiting a high social presence are more likely to produce higher-quality feedback and more improved subsequent texts than those with a lower social presence. The paper concludes by illustrating how this taxonomy can be used to both test this hypothesis and gain further insight into the peer feedback process in future studies.
The areas of the distribution of Indo-European loanwords in Finnic dialects are described on many lexical maps of the Atlas Linguarum Fennicarum and the Atlas Linguarum Europae. The maps of those atlases offer an opportunity to follow the post-formational contacts of the languages. The analysis of the spread of loanwords makes it possible to find the main routes and centres of Indo-European innovations in Finnic dialects and discuss the reasons for the different sources of the influences. Sometimes, the Finnic area has been a boundary zone for several widespread Indo- European stems coming from different directions. Often the area distribution of dialect words is etymologically suggestive, but the source language depends on the concept. The differences in the use of stems with the same Indo-European origin in different Finnic languages may, at least partly, be due to the words having been borrowed at different times and from different donor languages.
Kokkuvõte. Vilja Oja: Indoeuroopa laensõnade levikust läänemeresoome keelte murretes. Kõigi läänemeresoome keelte murdesõnu koos on kaardistatud keeleatlastes “Atlas Linguarum Fennicarum” ja “Atlas Linguarum Europae”. Murdesõnade levilad ei kattu enamasti keelealadega. Atlaste kaartidel näeme alasid, kus eesti murretes on levinud (alam)saksa, rootsi, läti ja vene laensõnad, soome murretes rootsi ja vene laenud ning isuri, vadja, karjala ja vepsa keeles vene laenud või samad germaani algupäraga sõnad nagu soome või eesti keeles. Palju indoeuroopa laene seostub kaubandussuhetega ja siinmail valitsenud võõrvõimudega. Laenuallika määratlemisel arvestatakse sõna sisu ja laenamise aega. Osa rootsi sõnu on eesti, karjala, isuri ja vadja murretesse laenatud soome keelest. Saksa sõnu on isuri ja vadja murretesse levinud soome ja eesti keelest. Saksa laenudel liivi keeles leidub lätipäraseid jooni. Sõnalevikud näitavad, et soome keel kuulub sagedamini lääne, karjala ja vepsa murded ida mõjusfääri. Eesti ja liivi keeles on laene mõlemast suunast. Isuri ja vadja murretes kajastuvad kolme naaberkeele – soome, eesti ja vene mõjutused.
Märksõnad: murdesõnavara, indoeuroopa laenud, keeleatlased, läänemeresoome keeled
The partitive has often been acknowledged as problematic for L2 learners of Finnish. The purpose of this study was to identify possible instances of L1 influence in Estonian learners’ use of partitive predicatives and to explore the relation between L1 influence and L2 proficiency. Research materials (85,749 words) were selected from the Estonian subcorpus of the International Corpus of Learner Finnish and evaluated according to the CEFR proficiency scales (i.e. A1–C2). A frequency-error analysis revealed instances of both positive L1 influence (e.g. a virtual lack of partitive overuse errors) and negative L1 influence (e.g. frequent use of nominative plural instead of partitive plural predicatives). The latter error type was found to ultimately decrease with increasing L2 proficiency, suggesting an inverse relation between negative L1 influence and L2 proficiency. Nonetheless, interactions between L1 influence and several other variables also reflected the extremely complex nature of the phenomenon of L1 influence.
Although Hungarians in Austria are an officially recognised ethnic minority, surprisingly little attention has been given tothe specific problems in teaching Hungarian as a heritage language.This paper focuses on the situation of heritage-language students who study Hungarian as part of a university curriculum in Vienna, together with German speakers. These students have learnt colloquial varieties of Hungarian as a spoken language in their families but typically have no formal training in the standard written language. This leads to learners’ errors which are often due to lacking language awareness: heritage-language students are unable to analyse their grammatical intuitions. It is also obvious that heritage-language students do not profit from traditional second-language teaching methods and material; furthermore, heterogeneous teaching groups rather create than solve problems. These issues, probably critical for an increasing group of multilingual speakers in many countries, call for more differentiated approaches to language planning and educational strategies.
<p>Artiklis analüüsitakse lilla-roosa värvigamma nimetusi eesti ja soome suulises keeles. Käsitletav murdeaines kajastab peamiselt 20. saj 1. poole keelt ning tänapäevaste nimetustena arvestatakse 1990-ndatel ja 2005–2006. a läbi viidud küsitluste tulemusi. Lillat ja roosat värvi on eesti ja soome keeles tähistatud põhivärvi (sinist või punast) märkiva sõnaga ja nendest moodustatud ühenditega, samuti võrdlusest lähtuvate liitnimetustega. Nende kõrval esineb rida indoeuroopa tüvedega laentermineid, nagu <em>lilla</em>, <em>violett</em>, <em>maliina</em>, <em>aniliin</em>, <em>purpur</em>, <em>kretliini</em>, <em>roosa</em> ja <em>pinkki</em>. Keelejuhtide ütluste põhjal on määratletud värvigamma osa või konkreetne toon, mida mingi nimetusega väljendatakse. Selgus, et indoeuroopa keelest laenatud terminite kasutus erineb ühelt poolt laenuandja keele omast ning teiselt poolt keeliti/murdeti läänemeresoome alal. Sõnavara võrdlus näitas ühtlasi viimase saja aasta jooksul nende värvimõistete nimetamises toimunud muutusi. Muuhulgas ilmnes selgelt tendents laennimetuste järjest suuremale eelistusele.</p><p>DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5128/ERYa6.12</p>
While the post-socialist transition of central and eastern European economies has produced a large amount of research, the transition to the command economy has been explored mainly in the cases of Russia and East Germany. This paper is an updated summary of the results of a larger research project which is dedicated to the Stalinist reconstruction of Estonia’s economy and the postwar years. It is based mainly on archival research in Estonian and Russian archives using documents of the state and the Communist Party.
The aim of the present paper is to examine the routine of apologizing in spoken business communication. Being face-threatening acts, apologies are of special importance in communication. Since apologies express sincerity and are remedial acts, apologizing helps to enhance mutual respect and to keep the relationship between colleagues stable, which is especially important in business communication. The present analysis focuses on four main expressions of explicit apologies, i.e. apologies with <em>sorry, I apologise, pardon </em>and <em>excuse me. </em>The data have been obtained from the sub-corpus of the British National Corpus, which includes transcripts of business communication and amounts to 1,321,844 words. The analysis accounts for the general frequency of different forms of apology in business communication as well as their frequency in relation to gender. The paper also focuses on the most typical patterns of apologies and argues that apologies range from neutral to highly emphatic or tentative. Finally, the present analysis investigates what is commonly apologised for in business settings.
The acquisition of the first language is a long and complicated process. Besides incorrect pronunciation, one can observe various morphonological, grammatical, and lexical errors in the speech of young children. The goal of the present research was to analyse the parental reactions both to the correct and incorrect utterances of children and to discuss the dependence of parental reactions on the errors of the child’s speech. The analysis is based on longitudinal data from the conversations between a Lithuanian girl (from the age of twenty months to thirty-two months) and her mother. The results of the study indicate that parents rather tend to react to the form than to the content of the incorrect utterances of children. On the other hand, the responses to the correct utterances are related more often to the content.
Artiklis vaadatakse, milline on mõiste KÄSI väljendite variatiivsus Eesti kultuuriruumis. Eesmärgiks on uurida eestikeelseid fraseoloogilisi väljendeid ja väljendverbe lekseemiga käsi, et leida, milliseid ruumisuhteid käe-väljendid representeerivad, kuidas on toimunud metafoorne projektsioon ning milline on sealjuures olnud kohakäändeline representatsioon. Uurimistöö teoreetiline raamistus on seotud S. C. Levinsoni seisukohtadega keelest ja kultuurist (Levinson 2000, 2001) ning C. Sinha käsitlustega inimese sümboliseerimisvõimest, tema kultuurilis-kognitiivsetest skeemidest ning inimese bioloogilisest ja kultuurilisest arengust (Sinha 1999, Sinha, Jensen de López 2000), samuti G. Lakoffi ja M. Johnsoni metafooriteooriaga (1980). Vaadatakse ka tähenduse grammatisatsiooni seoses sõna käsi kohakäändeliste fraasidega. Artiklis on esile toodud varasemaid somaatilise sõnavara uuringuid ning näidatud kaasaegsete seisukohtade seost eelnevatega.