Hasil untuk "Pharmacy and materia medica"

Gajapathi Balaraman, K. S. Bharanija, Joanna Gracy Prasanna et al.

The increasing demand for removable dentures among the geriatric population underscores the need for safe and effective denture cleansers and adhesives. Concerns over the toxicity, cost, and limited biocompatibility of conventional chemical-based products have led to increasing interest in herbal alternatives. This systematic review assessed the efficacy and safety of herbal extracts in denture care. A comprehensive search of PubMed, ScienceDirect, Wiley Online Library, and the Cochrane Library was conducted using the terms “herbal denture cleansers,” “herbal denture adhesives,” and “denture care.” In vivo studies published in English since 2010 were included, and seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Herbal agents such as Neem, Triphala, Aloe vera, turmeric, and olive oil demonstrated significant antifungal and antimicrobial activity, comparable to commercial formulations, along with improved denture retention and mucosal health. Overall, herbal extracts hold promise as effective, safe, and biocompatible alternatives for denture maintenance and patient comfort.

R. J. Ramu, K. V. Anand, Jithin Jacob Varghese et al.

Purpose: To evaluate the effectiveness of Ventilator-Assisted Preoxygenation (VAPOX) compared with Bag Valve Mask (BVM) ventilation during Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI) in patients presenting with acute respiratory distress. Materials and Methods: This observational study enrolled 60 critically ill patients requiring emergency intubation. Participants aged 40–90 years were consecutively allocated to receive preoxygenation by either VAPOX (n = 30) or BVM (n = 30). Heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation (SpO2), and PaO2/FiO2 ratios were recorded at baseline, postpreoxygenation, and at 1, 5, and 30 minutes postintubation. Statistical analysis used SPSS software; significance was defined as P < 0.05. Results: Patients in the VAPOX group reached 95% SpO2 significantly faster than the BVM group (39 seconds vs. 80 seconds, P = 0.005), despite having a lower initial mean SpO2 (85.4% vs. 88.47%). Postpreoxygenation saturation was significantly higher with VAPOX (99.37%) than with BVM (96.90%) (P = 0.001). PaO2/FiO2 ratios at 5 minutes postintubation showed significant improvement in VAPOX compared with BVM (298.53 vs. 237.67; P = 0.007). Hemodynamic parameters showed no significant differences between groups. Conclusion: VAPOX is superior to BVM for preoxygenation during RSI in critically ill patients, demonstrating faster oxygenation, better maintenance of oxygen saturation, and significantly improved PaO2/FiO2 ratios, thereby minimizing transient and critical hypoxemia.

Haitao Yuan, Xiaoxian Wang, Xin Sun et al.

Photodynamic immunotherapy is a promising strategy for cancer treatment. However, the dysfunctional tumor vasculature results in tumor hypoxia and the low efficiency of drug delivery, which in turn restricts the anticancer effect of photodynamic immunotherapy. In this study, we designed photosensitive lipid nanoparticles. The synthesized PFBT@Rox Lip nanoparticles could produce type I/II reactive oxygen species (ROS) by electron or energy transfer through PFBT under light irradiation. Moreover, this nanosystem could alleviate tumor hypoxia and promote vascular normalization through Roxadustat. Upon irradiation with white light, the ROS produced by PFBT@Rox Lip nanoparticles in situ dysregulated calcium homeostasis and triggered endoplasmic reticulum stress, which further promoted the release of damage-associated molecular patterns, enhanced antigen presentation, and stimulated an effective adaptive immune response, ultimately priming the tumor microenvironment (TME) together with the hypoxia alleviation and vessel normalization by Roxadustat. Indeed, in vivo results indicated that PFBT@Rox Lip nanoparticles promoted M1 polarization of tumor-associated macrophages, recruited more natural killer cells, and augmented infiltration of T cells, thereby leading to efficient photodynamic immunotherapy and potentiating the anti-primary and metastatic tumor efficacy of PD-1 antibody. Collectively, photodynamic immunotherapy with PFBT@Rox Lip nanoparticles efficiently program TME through the induction of immunogenicity and oxygenation, and effectively suppress tumor growth through immunogenic cell death and enhanced anti-tumor immunity.

Yibo Meng, Zhiming Liu, Xiaochen Qin

Type 2 diabetes patients in China face many significant challenges in patient-provider communication and self management In light of this, this work designed,implemented,and evaluated an AI-driven, personalized, multi-functional mobile app system named T2MD Health. The appintegrates real-time patient- provider conversation transcription,medical terminology interpretation, daily health tracking, and adata-driven feedback loop. We conducted qualitative interviewswith 40 participants to study key user needs before systemdevelopment and a mixed- method controlled experiment with 60participants after to evaluate the effectiveness and usability ofthe app. Evaluation results showed that the app was effective inimproving patient-provider communication efficiency, patientunderstanding and knowledge retention,and patient selfmanagement, Patient feedback also revealed that the app has thepotential to address the urban-rural gap in the access to medica!consultation services to some extent, Findings ofthis study couldinform future studies that seek to utilize mobile apps andartificial intelligence to support patients with chronic diseases.

Shonit Punwani, Peder EZ Larson, Christoffer Laustsen et al.

Magnetic resonance imaging of hyperpolarized (HP) [1-13C]pyruvate allows in-vivo assessment of metabolism and has translated into human studies across diseases at 15 centers worldwide. Consensus on best practice for multi-center studies is required to develop clinical applications. This paper presents the results of a 2-round formal consensus building exercise carried out by experts with HP [1-13C]pyruvate human study experience. Twenty-nine participants from 13 sites brought together expertise in pharmacy methods, MR physics, translational imaging, and data-analysis; with the goal of providing recommendations and best practice statements on conduct of multi-center human studies of HP [1-13C]pyruvate MRI. Overall, the group reached consensus on approximately two-thirds of 246 statements in the questionnaire, covering 'HP 13C-Pyruvate Preparation', 'MRI System Setup, Calibration, and Phantoms', 'Acquisition and Reconstruction', and 'Data Analysis and Quantification'. Consensus was present across categories, examples include that: (i) different HP pyruvate preparation methods could be used in human studies, but that the same release criteria have to be followed; (ii) site qualification and quality assurance must be performed with phantoms and that the same field strength must be used, but that the rest of the system setup and calibration methods could be determined by individual sites; (iii) the same pulse sequence and reconstruction methods were preferable, but the exact choice should be governed by the anatomical target; (iv) normalized metabolite area-under-curve (AUC) values and metabolite AUC were the preferred metabolism metrics. The work confirmed areas of consensus for multi-center study conduct and identified where further research is required to ascertain best practice.

Ahmed El Fekih Zguir, Ferda Ofli, Muhammad Imran

LLMs excel at linguistic tasks but lack the inner geospatial capabilities needed for time-critical disaster response, where reasoning about road networks, coordinates, and access to essential infrastructure such as hospitals, shelters, and pharmacies is vital. We introduce GeoResponder, a framework that instills robust spatial reasoning through a scaffolded instruction-tuning curriculum. By stratifying geospatial learning into different cognitive layers, we anchor semantic knowledge to the continuous coordinate manifold and enforce the internalization of spatial axioms. Extensive evaluations across four topologically distinct cities and diverse tasks demonstrate that GeoResponder significantly outperforms both state-of-the-art foundation models and domain-specific baselines. These results suggest that LLMs can begin to internalize and generalize geospatial structures, pointing toward the future development of language models capable of supporting disaster response needs.

Reethu Varadharajan, Veena B T, Smitha K et al.

Background: Jaundice during pregnancy poses significant risks to both maternal and fetal health. This retrospective study aimed to assess the incidence, causes, and outcomes of jaundice among pregnant women admitted to a tertiary care center over a 3-year period. Aims and Objectives: The primary objectives were to identify the incidence of jaundice, analyze its causes, and evaluate the maternal and fetal outcomes in cases of jaundice during pregnancy. Materials and Methods: Conducted as a case series with clinical correlation, the study spanned 3 years (2021–2023) at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kempegowda Institute of Medical Science, Bangalore. Data from parturition books and case sheets were collected after institutional ethical committee approval. Investigations included a complete blood count, liver function tests, coagulation profile, and serology. Fetal and maternal outcomes were recorded. Results: Out of 9 cases, 7 were diagnosed with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (IHCP), while 1 case each involved hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelet syndrome, and unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia specific to pregnancy. IHCP is correlated with adverse perinatal outcomes, including meconium-stained amniotic fluid and fetal distress. Cesarean sections were prevalent (58%), often indicated by previous lower segment cesarean sections and non-progression of labor. Conclusion: The study underscores the substantial association between IHCP and adverse perinatal outcomes, emphasizing the heightened prevalence of cesarean sections in pregnancies complicated by jaundice. It highlights the necessity for vigilant monitoring and tailored management strategies to mitigate risks and ensure favorable maternal and fetal outcomes in cases of jaundice during pregnancy. [Natl J Physiol Pharm Pharmacol 2024; 14(7.000): 1380-1385]

Carla Russo, Giuseppe Curcio, Alessandro Graziani et al.

<b>Background/Objectives</b>: Chronic skin wounds are characterized by inflammation, persistent infections, and tissue necrosis. The presence of bacterial biofilms prolongs the inflammatory response and delays healing. Ozone is a potent antimicrobial molecule, and many formulations have been used in the advanced therapeutic treatment of chronic wounds. The aim of this work was to determine the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and regenerative activity of a stable ozone-gel formulation over time. <b>Methods</b>: The antimicrobial property was assessed by measuring the minimal inhibitory concentration and the antibiofilm activity. The anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated by TNF-α determination, and the regenerative effect was measured by scratch assay. <b>Results</b>: The ozone gel demonstrated antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity in all ATCC microorganisms examined and on most clinical isolates. Higher concentrations of the ozone gel were also useful in the dispersion of preformed biofilm. The ozone gel also showed anti-inflammatory activity by reducing the production of TNF-α and regenerative activity in human fibroblasts and keratinocytes. <b>Conclusions</b>: Given all these antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and regenerative characteristics, the ozone gel could be, in this formulation, used in the treatment of wounds. The ozone-gel formulation described here retains stability for over 30 months, which facilitates its use compared to formulations that lose efficacy quickly.

Melinda David, Teodor A. Enache, Lucian Barbu-Tudoran et al.

Increasing levels of reactive oxygen species generate oxidative stress in the human body that can lead to various medical conditions. The use of nanomaterials exhibiting antioxidant properties may prevent these effects. The biological synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using plant extracts with antioxidant properties can offer benefits due to their active compounds. The used extracts contained reducing and stabilizing agents, which were shown to be transferred onto the gold nanoparticles, functionalizing them. Herin, we report a gold nanoparticle synthesis by eco-friendly biological methods (b-AuNPs) using extracts of sea buckthorn, lavender, walnuts, and grapes, obtained through ultrasound-assisted extraction and pressure-enhanced extraction. The obtained b-AuNPs were characterized by UV–Vis and FTIR spectroscopies and visualized using transmission electron microscopy. The catalytic and scavenging effect of the b-AuNPs towards H₂O₂ (as reactive oxygen species) was evaluated electrochemically, highlighting the protective behavior of b-AuNPs towards lipid peroxidation. All experiments demonstrated the stability and reproducibility of prepared b-AuNPs with enhanced antioxidant and catalytic properties, opening a new perspective for their use in biomedical applications.

S. Agrestini, F. Borgatti, P. Florio et al.

A supposedly nonmagnetic 5d$^1$ double perosvkite oxide is investigated by a combination of spectroscopic and theoretical methods, namely resonant inelastic X-ray scattering, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, magnetic circular dichroism, and multiplet ligand field calculations. We found that the large spin-orbit coupling admixes the 5d $t_{2g}$ and $e_g$ orbitals, covalency raises the 5d population well above the nominal value, and the local symmetry is lower than $O_h$. The obtained electronic interactions account for the finite magnetic moment of Os in this compound and, in general, of 5d$^1$ ions. Our results provide direct evidence of elusive Jahn-Teller distortions, hinting at a strong electron-lattice coupling.

Bing Hu, Anita Layton, Helen Chen

Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly used in every stage of drug development. One challenge facing drug discovery AI is that drug pharmacokinetic (PK) datasets are often collected independently from each other, often with limited overlap, creating data overlap sparsity. Data sparsity makes data curation difficult for researchers looking to answer research questions in poly-pharmacy, drug combination research, and high-throughput screening. We propose Imagand, a novel SMILES-to-Pharmacokinetic (S2PK) diffusion model capable of generating an array of PK target properties conditioned on SMILES inputs. We show that Imagand-generated synthetic PK data closely resembles real data univariate and bivariate distributions, and improves performance for downstream tasks. Imagand is a promising solution for data overlap sparsity and allows researchers to efficiently generate ligand PK data for drug discovery research. Code is available at https://github.com/bing1100/Imagand.

Pietro Delcanale, Manuela Maria Alampi, Andrea Mussini et al.

Photo-immunotherapy uses antibodies conjugated to photosensitizers to produce nanostructured constructs endowed with targeting properties and photo-inactivation capabilities towards tumor cells. The superficial receptor density on cancer cells is considered a determining factor for the efficacy of the photodynamic treatment. In this work, we propose the use of a photoactive conjugate that consists of the clinical grade PD-L1-binding monoclonal antibody Atezolizumab, covalently linked to either the well-known photosensitizer eosin or the fluorescent probe Alexa647. Using single-molecule localization microscopy (direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy, dSTORM), and an anti-PD-L1 monoclonal antibody labelled with Alexa647, we quantified the density of PD-L1 receptors exposed on the cell surface in two human non-small-cell lung cancer lines (H322 and A549) expressing PD-L1 to a different level. We then investigated if this value correlates with the effectiveness of the photodynamic treatment. The photodynamic treatment of H322 and A549 with the photo-immunoconjugate demonstrated its potential for PDT treatments, but the efficacy did not correlate with the PD-L1 expression levels. Our results provide additional evidence that receptor density does not determine a priori the level of photo-induced cell death.

Sofija Jovanović Stojanov, Epole N. Ntungwe, Jelena Dinić et al.

Multidrug resistance in cancer is often mediated by P-glycoprotein. Natural compounds have been suggested as a fourth generation of P-glycoprotein inhibitors. Coleon U, isolated from <i>Plectranthus mutabilis</i> Codd., was reported to modulate P-glycoprotein activity but the underlying mechanism has not yet been revealed. Therefore, the effects of Coleon U on cell viability, proliferation, and cell death induction were studied in a non-small-cell lung carcinoma model comprising sensitive and multidrug-resistant cells with P-glycoprotein overexpression. P-glycoprotein activity and mitochondrial membrane potential were assessed by flow cytometry upon Coleon U, sodium-orthovanadate (an ATPase inhibitor), and verapamil (an ATPase stimulator) treatments. SwissADME was used to identify the pharmacokinetic properties of Coleon U, while P-glycoprotein expression was studied by immunofluorescence. Our results showed that Coleon U is not a P-glycoprotein substrate and is equally efficient in sensitive and multidrug-resistant cancer cells. A decrease in P-glycoprotein activity observed with Coleon U and verapamil after 72 h is antagonized in combination with sodium-orthovanadate. Coleon U induced a pronounced effect on mitochondrial membrane depolarization and showed a tendency to decrease P-glycoprotein expression. In conclusion, Coleon U-delayed effect on the decrease in P-glycoprotein activity is due to P-glycoprotein’s functioning dependence on ATP production in mitochondria.

Byoung Hoon You, Mingoo Bae, Seung Yon Han et al.

Tenofovir (TEV) is a nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor used against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reverse transcriptase. To improve the poor bioavailability of TEV, TEV disoproxil (TD), an ester prodrug of TEV, was developed, and TD fumarate (TDF; Viread^®) has been marketed due to the hydrolysis of TD in moisture. Recently, a stability-enhanced solid-state TD free base crystal (SESS-TD crystal) was developed with improved solubility (192% of TEV) under gastrointestinal pH condition and stability under accelerated conditions (40 °C, RH 75%) for 30 days. However, its pharmacokinetic property has not been evaluated yet. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the pharmacokinetic feasibility of SESS-TD crystal and to determine whether the pharmacokinetic profile of TEV remained unchanged when administering SESS-TD crystal stored for 12 months. In our results, the <i>F</i> and systemic exposure (i.e., AUC and <i>C</i>_max) of TEV in the SESS-TD crystal and TDF groups were increased compared to those in the TEV group. The pharmacokinetic profiles of TEV between the SESS-TD and TDF groups were comparable. Moreover, the pharmacokinetic profiles of TEV remained unchanged even after the administration of the SESS-TD crystal and TDF stored for 12 months. Based on the improved <i>F</i> after the SESS-TD crystal administration and the stable condition of the SESS-TD crystal after 12 months, SESS-TD crystal may have enough pharmacokinetic feasibility to replace TDF.

África Periáñez, Andrew Trister, Madhav Nekkar et al.

Malaria can be prevented, diagnosed, and treated; however, every year, there are more than 200 million cases and 200.000 preventable deaths. Malaria remains a pressing public health concern in low- and middle-income countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. We describe how by means of mobile health applications, machine-learning-based adaptive interventions can strengthen malaria surveillance and treatment adherence, increase testing, measure provider skills and quality of care, improve public health by supporting front-line workers and patients (e.g., by capacity building and encouraging behavioral changes, like using bed nets), reduce test stockouts in pharmacies and clinics and informing public health for policy intervention.

Hibah M. Aldawsari, Sima Singh, Nabil A. Alhakamy et al.

Non-small cell lung cancer, a molecularly diverse disease, is the most prevalent cause of cancer mortality globally. Increasing understanding of the clinicopathology of the disease and mechanisms of tumor progression has facilitated early detection and multimodal care. Despite the advancements, survival rates are extremely low due to non-targeted therapeutics and correspondingly increased risk of metastasis. At some phases of cancer, patients need to face the ghost of chemotherapy. It is a difficult decision near the end of life. Such treatments have the capability to prolong survival or reduce symptoms, but can cause serious adverse effects, affecting quality of life of the patient. It is evident that many patients do not die from burden of the disease alone, but they die due to the toxic effect of treatment. Thus, increasing the efficacy is one aspect and decreasing the toxicity is another critical aspect of cancer formulation design. Through our current research, we tried to uncover both mentioned potentials of the formulation. Therefore, we designed actively targeted nanoparticles for improved therapeutics considering the overexpression of adenosine (ADN) receptors on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. Docetaxel (DTX), an essential therapeutic as part of combination therapy or as monotherapy for the treatment of NSCLC, was encapsulated in biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles. ADN was conjugated on the surface of nanoparticles using EDC-NHS chemistry. The particles were characterized in vitro for physicochemical properties, cellular uptake, and biocompatibility. The size and zeta potential of DTX nanoparticles (DPLGA) were found to be 138.4 ± 5.45 nm and −16.7 ± 2.3 mV which were found to change after ADN conjugation. The size was increased to 158.2 ± 6.3 nm, whereas zeta potential was decreased to −11.7 ± 1.4 mV for ADN-conjugated DTX nanoparticles (ADN-DPLGA) indicative of surface conjugation. As observed from transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the nanoparticles were spherical and showed no significant change in encapsulation efficiency even after surface conjugation. Careful and systematic optimization leads to ADN-conjugated PLGA nanoparticles having distinctive characteristic features such as particle size, surface potential, encapsulation efficacy, etc., that may play crucial roles in the fate of nanoparticles (NPs). Consequently, higher cellular uptake in the A549 lung cancer cell line was exhibited by ADN-DPLGA compared to DPLGA, illustrating the role of ADN receptors (ARs) in facilitating the uptake of NPs. Further in vivo pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution experiments revealed prolonged circulation in plasma and significantly higher lung tissue distribution than in other organs, dictating the targeting potential of the developed formulation over naïve drug and unconjugated formulations. Further, in vivo acute toxicity was examined using multiple parameters for non-toxic attributes of the developed formulation compared to other non-targeted organs. Further, it also supports the selection of biocompatible polymers in the formulation. The current study presents a proof-of-concept for a multipronged formulation technology strategy that might be used to maximize anticancer therapeutic responses in the lungs in the treatment of NSCLC. An improved therapeutic and safety profile would help achieve maximum efficacy at a reduced dose that would eventually help reduce the toxicity.

Tatiana Makhinova, Jamie C. Barner, Carolyn M. Brown et al.

Community pharmacist interventions can assist in improving adherence in patients with asthma. The objective of the study was to assess the feasibility of patient-centered counseling using the developed asthma-specific tools to identify barriers to adherence and identify their preliminary effect on adherence barrier score and asthma control. Adult patients with persistent asthma were invited to participate in a 3-month pre–post intervention study involving community pharmacist-provided patient-centered counseling. Bivariate analyses were conducted to determine whether there were changes in outcomes from the pre to post period. Of 36 recruited patients, 17 completed both pre and post surveys. At baseline, patients had a mean ACT score of 15.1 ± 3.5, with 94% having uncontrolled asthma, and an average of 4.2 ± 2.5 reported barriers. The following barriers were most common: not having an Asthma Action Plan (52.9%), use of inhaler more or less often than prescribed (47.1%) and forgetfulness (41.2%). The ACT score increased by 2.7 ± 5.4, which was not statistically significant; however, it might be clinically significant. Two barrier scores improved as a result of the intervention. Preliminary evidence on the feasibility of identifying and addressing patient-specific barriers to adherence delivered by pharmacists showed that it has the potential to resolve barriers and improve asthma outcomes.

Beatriz Gato-Rivera

Antimatter is one of the most fascinating aspects of Particle Physics and one of the most unknown ones too. In this article we concisely explain what is antimatter and its distinction between primordial and secondary, how it is produced, where it can be found, the experiments carried out at CERN to create and analyze antiatoms, the problem of the matter-antimatter asymmetry, and the medical and technological applications of antimatter in our society. -- La antimateria es uno de los aspectos más fascinantes de la Física de Partículas, y también uno de los más desconocidos. En este artículo explicamos concisamente qué es la antimateria y su diferenciación entre primordial y secundaria, cómo se produce, donde se encuentra, los experimentos que se realizan en el CERN para crear y analizar antiátomos, el problema de la asimetría materia-antimateria, y las aplicaciones médicas y tecnológicas de la antimateria en nuestra sociedad.

Albert W. Girotti, Jonathan M. Fahey, Mladen Korbelik

Anti-tumor photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a unique oxidative stress-based modality that has proven highly effective on a variety of solid malignancies. PDT is minimally invasive and generates cytotoxic oxidants such as singlet molecular oxygen (¹O₂). With high tumor site-specificity and limited off-target negative effects, PDT is increasingly seen as an attractive alternative or follow-up to radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Nitric oxide (NO) is a short-lived bioactive free radical molecule that is exploited by many malignant tumors to promote cell survival, proliferation, and metastatic expansion. Typically generated endogenously by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS/NOS2), low level NO can also antagonize many therapeutic interventions, including PDT. In addition to elevating resistance, iNOS-derived NO can stimulate growth and migratory aggressiveness of tumor cells that survive a PDT challenge. Moreover, NO from PDT-targeted cells in any given population is known to promote such aggressiveness in non-targeted counterparts (bystanders). Each of these negative responses to PDT and their possible underlying mechanisms will be discussed in this chapter. Promising pharmacologic approaches for mitigating these NO-mediated responses will also be discussed.

Jan Muselík, Alena Komersová, Kateřina Kubová et al.

A drug dissolution profile is one of the most critical dosage form characteristics with immediate and controlled drug release. Comparing the dissolution profiles of different pharmaceutical products plays a key role before starting the bioequivalence or stability studies. General recommendations for dissolution profile comparison are mentioned by the EMA and FDA guidelines. However, neither the EMA nor the FDA provides unambiguous instructions for comparing the dissolution curves, except for calculating the similarity factor <i>f</i>₂. In agreement with the EMA and FDA strategy for comparing the dissolution profiles, this manuscript provides an overview of suitable statistical methods (CI derivation for <i>f</i>₂ based on bootstrap, CI derivation for the difference between reference and test samples, Mahalanobis distance, model-dependent approach and maximum deviation method), their procedures and limitations. However, usage of statistical approaches for the above-described methods can be met with difficulties, especially when combined with the requirement of practice for robust and straightforward techniques for data evaluation. Therefore, the bootstrap to derive the CI for <i>f</i>₂ or CI derivation for the difference between reference and test samples was selected as the method of choice.