Air pollution has been on continuous rise with increase in industrialization in metropolitan cities of the world. Several measures including strict climate laws and reduction in the number of vehicles were implemented by several nations. The COVID-19 pandemic provided a great opportunity to understand the daily human activities effect on air pollution. Majority nations restricted industrial activities and vehicular traffic to a large extent as a measure to restrict COVID-19 spread. In this paper, we analyzed the impact of such COVID19-induced lockdown on the air quality of the city of New Delhi, India. We analyzed the average concentration of common gaseous pollutants viz. sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). These concentrations were obtained from the tropospheric column of Sentinel-5P (an earth observation satellite of European Space Agency) data. We observed that the city observed a significant drop in the level of atmospheric pollutant’s concentration for all the major pollutants as a result of strict lockdown measure. Such findings are also validated with pollutant data obtained from ground based monitoring stations. We observed that near-surface pollutant concentration dropped significantly by 50% for PM2.5, 71.9% for NO2, and 88% for CO, after the lockdown period. Such studies would pave the path for implementing future air pollution control measures by environmentalists.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization and the world’s largest and arguably most important conservation network. It was founded in Fontainebleau, France in 1948 and its headquarters is located in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has offices in more than 45 countries and runs hundreds of projects around the world, including a multilateral office located in Washington, DC that serves as a global embassy for IUCN. It plays a critical role in the conservation of nature as a knowledge-producing organization (IUCN, UNEP & WWF 1980, 1991). Its vision is achieving a “world that values and conserves nature” and its mission is to influence, encourage, and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. According to its official homepage, IUCN helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environmental and development challenges. IUCN supports scientific research; manages field projects all over the world; and brings governments, nongovernmental organizations, United Nations agencies, companies, and local communities together to develop and implement policy, laws, and best practice. IUCN is a democratic membership union that includes 87 nation-states, 120 government agencies, and more than 821 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). In addition it has 11 714 scientists and experts from 181 countries in its six commissions in a unique worldwide partnership. These are the Commission on Education and Communication (CEC, 625 members), Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy (CEESP, 1061 members), Commission on Environmental Law (CEL, 800 members), Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM, 400 members), Species Survival Commission (SSC, 7528 members), and World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA, 1300 members). These commissions contribute to the conservation of nature through action projects to research in their respective fields. In addition to these six major commissions, which include conservation-related international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, civil society organizations, academic institutions, indigenous groups, and individual conservation experts and activists, there are also several groups working in specific subfields. The IUCN Council is the principal governing body of IUCN in between sessions of the World Conservation Congress, the general assembly of the Union. The Council is responsible for oversight and general control of all the affairs of IUCN, subject to the authority of the World Conservation Congress. IUCN member organizations elect the Council every four years at the World Conservation Congress. Along with a President, Treasurer, and three representatives from each of the Union’s eight regions, the Council also includes the chairs of the six commissions. The Council functions in a similar way to a Board of Directors, meeting once or twice a year to direct Union policy, approve finances, and decide on strategy. The Council can appoint up to six additional Councilors. IUCN is a unique organization, formed by the secretariat, the members, and a diverse group of experts coming from various sectors. IUCN members (particularly commissions) hold different backgrounds. Most importantly, because of its working modality IUCN is not solely an international NGO, but it is also not an international governmental organization. That is, it follows the laws and regulations of member nations and does not work for or against particular national
A number of trends in national and international politics greatly affect our capacity to achieve the cooperation that will be necessary to address the challenges facing society over the coming decades. These involve the interplay among partisanship and party loyalties within countries, populism, and polarization within and among nations. The trends are widespread and seem to be reshaping politics across the globe. They are inherently systems-level phenomena, involving interactions among multiple component parts and the emergence of broaderscale features; yet, they have been inadequately explored from that perspective. To make progress in understanding these issues, political-science research stands to benefit from insights from other disciplines, including evolutionary biology, systems science, and the disciplines concerned with the fair and efficient provision of public goods of all kinds, but especially those affecting the shared environment and public health. These other disciplines, in turn, stand to gain equally from the perspective developed in political science. In viewing political systems as complex adaptive systems, we can gain a new understanding of the forces that shape current trends, and how that knowledge might affect governance strategies going forward. Extreme polarization is a dangerous phenomenon that requires greater scientific attention to address effectively. This Special Feature of PNAS draws on this relatively new interdisciplinary field, featuring original joint research from collaborating political scientists and complex systems theorists. Each paper is a true partnership among the different disciplines and illustrates the benefits of closer ties between complex systems and social science. The papers explore the emergence of patterns and structures in societies and the linkages among individual behaviors and societal benefits across scales of space, time, and organizational complexity. The COVID-19 pandemic provides the most recent examples of how patterns of polarization in societies interact with our abilities to solve societal challenges. The main goal of the Special Feature is to deepen our understanding of the dynamics of political polarization and related trends, and especially the interplay among these processes at multiple scales, from the local to the international. The papers cover many different aspects of this issue and do so from different systems-level perspectives, providing a broad view of the problem. The papers explore the impact of information flow networks, the diverse nature of national governance systems, the role of the media, and the dynamics of party sorting. They pose a number of key questions. Do the dynamics of such systems follow a natural progression of polarization and collapse, similar to Schumpeter’s economic theories (1)? How do migration, globalization, and new technologies, such as the internet, affect the trends? Does an extension of Duverger’s Law (2) foreshadow a natural tendency toward polarization in nations with two-party systems, like that in the United States, undercutting Madison’s dream (3)? Duverger’s Law argues that a system like that of the United States, based on a plurality rule on a single ballot, will lead to a two-party system, while Madison hoped for a system that would “break and control the violence of faction” (3). The Special Feature arose from a series of workshops in which the issues were aired, collaborations were developed, and earlier versions of the papers received constructive feedback. It became clear from those discussions that even the definition of polarization has manifold aspects, that some degree of polarization is likely healthy in sharpening issue differences in any society, and that there have been historical fluctuations in polarization at all levels, within and among nations and peoples. What is clear, though, is that it is essential to understand the causes and consequences of polarization if we are to deal with regional, national, and global problems that we will face in the coming years. The Special Feature includes 11 individual articles, incorporating both novel research and Perspectives. In addition, Jenna Bednar (4) provides a Perspective embedding the contributions within the
Abstract Environmental pollution is not a new phenomenon, yet it remains the world’s greatest problem facing humanity, and the leading environmental causes of morbidity and mortality. Man’s activities through urbanization, industrialization, mining, and exploration are at the forefront of global environmental pollution. Both developed and developing nations share this burden together, though awareness and stricter laws in developed countries have contributed to a larger extent in protecting their environment. Despite the global attention towards pollution, the impact is still being felt due to its severe long-term consequences. This chapter examines the types of pollution—air, water, and soil; the causes and effects of pollution; and proffers solutions in combating pollution for sustainable environment and health.
This chapter examines the international legal regime on land degradation. It first provides a brief overview of land degradation as a complex environmental issue around the world before discussing the causes and effects of land degradation. It then analyses a variety of legal responses to land degradation, from global initiatives such as the Convention to Combat Desertification, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the IUCN Covenant on Environment and Development; regional initiatives such as the World Soil Charter 2014 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2015; and national laws and policies. The chapter also explores some of the main elements that need to be taken into consideration when designing legislation to address land degradation, including land tenure, access to land, farming systems and land use, the role of protected areas, and physical planning.
Abstract Oil is a main driving force when it comes to the economic development of a country. But nations around the world have uneven oil distribution, which pushes them toward rapid development of petroleum trade and maritime transportation. With the rising maritime transportation volume of oil, countries around the globe are paying increasing attention to the safe transportation of oil, oil spills from tankers are thus decreasing. However, the oil spill problem still deserves attention and laws and procedures should be strengthened to prevent future accidents and spills. This paper reviews the history of world oil trade and oil spill pollution and puts forward oil spill prevention strategies. The paper looks at the data related to oil spills created by tankers in the past 50 years from 1970 to 2017 and studies the trends in oil trade and oil spill pollution, in a bid to analyze the pollution status of major oil spill accidents and the development of treatment regulations. The paper also explores key factors behind oil spills from tankers and summarizes strategies and directions for the global marine shipping industry to prevent oil tanker pollution in the future based on the aforementioned research. This study offers systematic and scientific information reference for green operation and management of the oil tanker industry and helps government departments and policymakers to adopt reasonable and effective strategies to prevent and handle oil spill accidents from tankers across the world.
This paper examines corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the role government can play in promoting CSR. Corporations are an integral part of the large economy of any given society or country whereby these corporations operate. The government’s role is critical in promoting CSR activities or agendas because CSR is voluntary without mandatory legislation. The method used in this paper is a normative literature review and secondary data procedures. The research results show the need for developed and developing countries to share CSR’s best practices and build human institutions capable of enhancing CSR agendas by creating awareness, soft laws, partnering, and mandating business enterprises to be transparent in solving society’s problems wherever they operate. Governments in some developed nations have taken a far-reaching agenda in promoting CSR, especially the UK, European Union, the USA, and other developing countries in East Asia. However, developing countries are lagging behind in developing CSR agendas but should not simply copy from developed countries but adopt CSR’s agenda susceptive to their multiple nations’ sustainable and equitable developments. The result also shows that the lack of good governance and transparency in abundant natural resources in developing countries in the south has led to corrupt elites diverting CSR activities funds for their self-interest and not their local communities. Some developing countries still see CSR as an act of philanthropy, not as means for sustainable and equitable development for economic growth, hence the lack of transparency surrounding CSR by the various government and their elites.
El propósito de este trabajo consiste en explorar las consecuencias económicas que conlleva la escasa regulación de la industria Fintech en Argentina. Pese a que las empresas del sector pueden ser vistas como deseables toda vez que lograrían propiciar la inclusión financiera, se evidencia que en la práctica mercantil la ausencia de una regulación adecuada podría perjudicar a grupos vulnerables, en especial a las mujeres, debido a la falta o escasa educación financiera.
El objetivo radica en evidenciar la necesidad de una normativa adecuada que tutele a las mujeres frente a las prácticas empresariales de las empresas de este rubro. A partir de la información recabada, se analizará si el derecho logra acompañar la protección de los consumidores vulnerables o si la ausencia de una regulación adecuada exacerba las prácticas abusivas por parte de estas empresas.
Anil Kumar, Indrajit Pal, Djoen San Santoso
et al.
Abstract Bangladesh aims to become a high-income country by 2041, requiring investment in critical infrastructure sectors. Disruptions in one sector can affect others, so prioritizing actions for key sectors is essential when resources are limited. Since no country has endless resources, the current strategy is to focus on developing infrastructure in order of importance. This means that the most critical infrastructure is given priority when allocating resources. The aim of this study was to identify the critical infrastructure sectors and their interdependencies in Bangladesh. While the science of critical infrastructure protection and resilience is well-developed in high-income and developed economies, this research sheds light on identifying critical infrastructure in developing nations like Bangladesh. To identify the critical infrastructure sectors, a comprehensive literature survey was conducted, which was verified and validated by country experts. Policymakers, practitioners, and researchers were consulted through key informant interviews (KII). Interpretive structural modeling (ISM) was applied to determine the interdependencies among identified sectors. Furthermore, cross-impact matrix multiplication applied to classification (MICMAC) analysis was applied to categorize the identified sectors based on driving power and dependence of sectors. The study found that 14 sectors—energy, information and communication technology (ICT), media and culture, law enforcement, transportation, among others—need extra protection measures. It also identified infrastructures with driving power and dependencies in the country’s context. Additionally, this article offers recommendations for improving policy and institutional actions to enhance the resilience of critical infrastructure in the country.
On November 13, 2023, Professor Mubin Shaikh presented Prislamism, Radicalization, and Deradicalization in Canada at the West Coast Security Conference. The presentation was followed by a question-and-answer period with questions from the audience and CASIS Vancouver executives. The key points discussed were that Prislamism, thought of as a route to radicalization, is a blend of Islamic theory and concepts that advocates for violence toward institutions of incarceration. The prison systems in both Muslim and Western nations provide a breeding ground for radicalization through both their physical conditions and the social dynamics of custody. Combating radicalization in prisons requires robust training and a steadfast adherence to the law on the part of practitioners.
Received: 12-11-2023
Revised: 01-26-2024
Conventions adopted by the United Nations and Council of Europe pay special importance to the treatment of prisoners with mental health problems. Their treatment is closely related to respect for human dignity, torture, cruel and degrading treatment or punishment. The European Court of Human Rights, in many cases, has ruled that the detention of a mentally-ill person can raise issues from Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights and that the lack of adequate medical care can result in treatment contrary to this article, especially with regard to inhumane and degrading treatment or punishment. The Republic of Kosovo is not a member of the United Nations and Council of Europe. However, it has incorporated in its Constitution a number of Conventions adopted by the United Nations and Council of Europe, which are very important international instruments for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Also, Kosovo has adopted a legal frame work which prohibits torture, cruel and degrading treatment or punishment in accordance with the international Human Rights standards. The Constitution, also provides that Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution shall be interpreted in accordance with the case law of the European Court of Human Rights. This paper is based on the reports of international Human Rights monitoring mechanisms and their findings regarding treatment of prisoners with mental health problems, such as Council of Europe Committee for the Prevention of Torture, Ombudsperson of Kosovo reports, reports of governmental bodies, as well as reports of Kosovo NGOs, which are authorized to monitor Human Rights situation in places of deprivation of liberty. Based on Ombudsperson’s reports, Committee for the Prevention of Torture reports, reports of Prison Health Department of Kosovo Ministry of Health, as well as reports of the NGOs in Kosovo, the treatment of prisoners with serious mental problems in detention and correctional centers in the Republic of Kosovo remains a serious challenge, despite the efforts of the competent authorities to change this situation and to increase human and institutional capacities. Prisoners with serious mental health problems continue to be accommodated in detention and correctional centers, instead of being accommodated in the relevant health institutions, due to the lack of institutional capacities and personnel.
This article explores the (in)activity of many States in contributing to the interpretative clarification of ‘how’ jus contra bellum applies in cyberspace, its negative repercussions for the work of the United Nations Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing responsible State behaviour in cyberspace in the context of international security (UN GGE) and the United Nations Open-Ended Working Group on Developments in the Field of ICTs in the Context of International Security (UN OEWG), and the way forward. In its main part, the article analyses the (legal) consequences of interpretative silence and challenges its (presumably) underlying rationale – that is, a strategy of legal ambiguity based on the traditional ‘freedom of State’ paradigm. This article argues that it is only by actively contributing to the clarification of the law that States ensure their voice is heard and avoid the risk that their silence is interpreted as acquiescence. Moreover, contrary to what the freedom of State paradigm implies, the subjective interpretation of the parties is not the only ‘game in town’. If no interpretative agreement of States crystallises, the interpretation of jus contra bellum is determined by objective factors. The article concludes by arguing that from a rule of law perspective, States should be encouraged to express their views on ‘how’ jus contra bellum applies in cyberspace to ensure the efficiency and transparency of these rules, which constitute part of the backbone of a peaceful co-existence and cooperation between states.
Law, Law in general. Comparative and uniform law. Jurisprudence
Abstract In many modern nation states, both rich and poor, traditional law to this day plays an important role. Given the almost universal prevalence of traditional law, it is surprising how little we know about it. This is the first study that tries to take stock of traditional law from a cross-country perspective. We are also interested in the compatibility of traditional law with state-enforced law and, in particular, with the basic traits of the rule of law. Based on a sample of up to 134 countries, we find that no ‘typical’ traditional law exists, but that traditional law varies in many dimensions such as its timely enforcement, its impartiality, and its protection of basic human rights. Societies that rely extensively on traditional law score low regarding both the rule of law and per capita income. Historical and geographical factors are important predictors of the contemporaneous reliance on traditional law. State antiquity, for example, reduces the prevalence of traditional law, as does a high share of descendants from European populations.