Hasil untuk "Practical religion. The Christian life"

Jodi Hunt

Review of _Encountering Artificial Intelligence: Ethical and Anthropological Investigations_

Paweł Rabczyński

James V Ritchie, Patricia Woods

Boško Erić

The author dedicates the first part of this paper to the presentation of the problem regarding identity of Isaac mentioned in the title of Memra. He begins by analysing the letter written by Jacob of Edessa (died in 708), which is one of the oldest preserved sources related to this issue. This letter actually presents three Isaacs who (at least partially) lived in the 5th century in the same area. After this part of the work, author consults “Foreword” by P. Bedjan, publisher of Memra’s Syriac text, and several studies by T. Bou Mansour, showing that scholars since 19th century had different opinions regarding the number of persons who wrote under the name Isaac during this same period. Following the analysis of Bou Mansour, the author proposes that the writer of Memra was probably Isaac who was known as Isaac of Antioch, opponent to Chalcedonian faith. The author also points out a certain dramatization that is inherent in the Memra. He notes that the text of the Memra is vivid and in dialogical form. Through it, Isaac gradually leads the reader/listener to the climax of its message, and that is the importance of constantly reading and learning the Scriptures. The author then reviews the contents of Memra and comments of Isaac’s idea that the very reading of text is actually a conversation with its writer and, in this case, with the writers of Holy Scriptures. This commentary is followed by the Syriac text of Memra and its translation into Serbian language.

Zoya Baran

Background. At the beginning of the 1920’s, after establishing the borders of the restored Polish State, its eastern territories were dominated by the Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian populations, and in the western part, a significant percentage were Germans. Accordingly, the state faced the problem of developing a constructive policy towards national minorities. Purpose. The article analyzes the attitude of the Polish intellectual elite to the prob-lem of national minorities, whose opinions were partially reflected in a poll conducted in July and August 1924 by the liberal Warsaw newspaper “Kurjer Polski”. The discussion intensified, in particular, due to the expiration of the government’s commitment to give Eastern Galicia autonomy, the preparation of a government law on education (known as Lex Grabski). Results. The opening of a Ukrainian university was a part of the problem. At the request of the government, the academic community of the Jagiellonian University expressed its views in June, which generally welcomed the idea of opening a separate Ukrainian university in Lviv, Warsaw or Krakow. “Kurjer Polski” published reflections of intellectuals representing different regions of the country and political currents: socialists (A. Śliwiński – Warsaw), nationalists (S. Bukowiecki – Vilno), conservatives (Fr. Bossowsky, T. Dembowsky – Vilno; E. Hauswald – Lviv ). The basis for solving the problem at that time, most authors called the provisions of the March 1921 Constitution on the main democratic rights of citizens, unanimously called for creating opportunities for cultural and national development of national minorities, hoping for the consolidation of the state. It was emphasized the need to take into account the individual characteristics of each minority and regional specifics. In particular, E. Hauswald considered the experience of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy of the early twentieth century as an example of solving the problem (Moravian Compensation 1905 and The Bukovinian Compromise 1910). Quite controversial about the essence of Belarusian (Belarusians are not a nation that encompasses all segments of society, but only the mass of the peasantry is devoid of any political ambitions; Belarusian language is a set of dialects that makes a gradual transition from Russian to Polish; literary Belarusian lan-guage is artificially created, the population does not understand it) and Ukrainian (did not deny the existence of political ambitions, but emphasized the significant differences in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia and dependence on external support) national movements were the reflections of Fr. Bossovsky, who, however, supported the idea of granting national minorities freedom of cultural development. Lviv lawyer J. Makarewicz (representative of the Christian Democrats) called for a policy of state assimilation towards Ukrainians and Belarusians, tactics of “state indifference” towards Jews, Russians and Germans. However, despite the existence of such ideas in the Polish intellectual environment, government circles have chosen the concept of a unitary mono-national state. As early as July 1924, a law on education was passed, many articles of which were aimed at discriminating against national minorities. And further changes in the political life of the country only exacerbated the problem, which was not solved throughout the interwar period. Keywords: Fr. Bossowski, S. Bukowiecki, T. Dembowski, interwar Poland, E. Hauswald, Kurjer Polski, J. Makarewicz, national question, A. Śliwiński. A never-extinguishing volcano, 1924. Kurjer Polski, May 31, р.2. (In Polish) Announcement of the National Electoral Commission on November 24, 1930, s. 1. [online] Avialable at: http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/ WMP19302720369/ O/M19300369. pdf [Accessed 15 march 2021]. (In Polish) Baran, Z., 1998. On the question of the agrarian policy of the governments of interwar Poland towards Western Ukraine. Visnyk of the Lviv University, 33. Series History. Lviv, pp.146–153. (In Ukrainian) Baran, Z., 2011. Julian Makarevich’s socio-political views. In: Historical sights of Galicia. Proceedings of the fifth scientific conference on local history, 12 november 2010. Lviv, рр.188–198. (In Ukrainian) Bezuk, O., 2019. The reaction of the Western Ukrainian and world community to the death of Olga Levitska-Basarab. In: The modern movement of science: theses add. VII In-ternational Scientific and Practical Internet Conference, 6–7 june 2019. Dnipro, pp.75–81. (In Ukrainian) Bojarski, Р., 2015. Piłsudski’s May Coup in commentaries of “Dziennik Wileński” journalists. The Scientific Journals of the Learned Society of Ostrołęka, 29, рр.101–114. (In Polish) Bohachevsky-Chomiak, М., 1981. The Ukrainian university in Galicia. Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 5(4). Published by Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, pp.497–545. (In English) Bossowski, F., 1924. Any irritating policy must be abandoned. Kurjer Polski, August 24, р.3. (In Polish) Bukowiecki, S., 1922. The policy of independent Poland. Essay of the program. War-saw: Ignis S.A. (In Polish) Bukowiecki, S., 1924. Providing cultural development for minorities unites them with the State. Kurjer Polski, July 4, р.2. (In Polish) Czekaj, К., 2011. Artur Śliwiński (1877–1953). Politician, publicist, historian. Warsaw. (In Polish) Dąbrowski, P., 2020. Belarussian and Jewish issues in the political and legal thought of polish groups in Vilnius in the first years of independence – selected issues. Studia juridica Lublinensia, 29(4). Pomeranian University in Slupsk, pp.59–70. (In English) Dembowski, T., 1924. May everyone in Poland be fine. Kurjer Polski, August 10, р.4. (In Polish) Do you know who it is?, 1938. S. Łozа, ed. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Głównej księgarni wojskowej. [online] Avialable at: https://prokuratoria.gov.pl/index.php?p=m&idg=m3,113 [Accessed 23 march 2021] (In Polish) Hauswald, Е., 1924. It is necessary to adhere to the principles of fairness and compre-hensive tolerance. Kurjer Polski, August 7, р.2. (In Polish) Hud, B., 2018. From the history of ethnosocial conflicts. Ukrainians and Poles in the Dnieper region, Volhynia and Eastern Galicia in the XIX–first half of the XX century. Harkiv: Akta. (In Ukrainian) Holzer, J. 1974. Political mosaic of the Second Polish Republic. Warsaw: Książka і Wiedza. (In Polish) Jászi, O., 1929. The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Chicago–Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. [online] Avialable at: https://ia801603.us.archive.org/33/ items/in.ernet.dli.2015.151077/2015.151077.The-Dissolution-Of-The-Habsburg Monar-chy.pdf [Accessed 15 march 2021]. (In English) Kakareko, A., 2002. To restore the state myth: reception of the Jagiellonian heritage in the environment of the Club of Tramps Seniors in Vilnius in the 1930s. In: Poles and neighbors – distances and the interpenetration of cultures: a collection of studies, part 3. R. Wapiński, еd. Ostaszewo Gdańskie: Stepan design. (In Polish) Krykun, M. and Zashkilnyak, L., 2002. History of Poland. From ancient times to the present days. Lviv: Ivan Franko National University in Lviv. (in Ukrainian). Krzywobłocka, B., 1974. Christian Democrats 1918–1937. Warsaw: Książka і Wiedza. (In Polish) Kurjer Polski, 1924a. May 21. (In Polish) Kurjer Polski, 1924b. May 23. (In Polish) Kurjer Polski, 1924c. July 4. (In Polish) Makarewicz, J., 1924. Minorities. Lviv: Chrześcijańska Spółka Wydawnicza, 1924. (In Polish) Malycka, K., 1924. About Olga Levitsky Bessarabova. Dilo. February 23. (In Ukraini-an) Minutes of a conference held 11–12 july 1924, at the polish Ministry of Religions and Education, 1981. In: Bohachevsky-Chomiak, М., 1981. The Ukrainian university in Gali-cia. Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 5(4). Published by Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, doc.3, pp.524–527. (In Polish) More than independence, 2001. Polish political thought 1918–1939. J. Jachymek and W. Paruch, ed. science. Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej. (In Polish) Mudryj, V., 1948. Ukrainian University in Lviv in 1921–1925. Nurenberg: Czas. (In Ukrainian) National-State Union, 1922. Program declaration. June 28. [online] Avialable at: https://polona.pl/item/deklaracja-programowa-inc-polska-jako-narod-ani-na-chwile-nie-przestawala-istniec,NjIxNjY2NzE/0/#info:metadata [Accessed 15 march 2021]. (In Polish) Orman, E., 1989–1991. Rosner Ignacy Juliusz (1865–1926). Polish Biographical Dictionary, Vol.32. Romiszewski Aleksander – Rudowski Jan. Wrocław: National Institute of Ossolińskich – Publishing House of the Polish Academy of Sciences, рр.106–110. [online] Avialable at: https://www.ipsb.nina.gov.pl/ a/biografia/ignacy-juliusz-rosner [Ac-cessed 3 december 2021] (In Polish) Renner, K., 2005. State and nation (1899). In: National Cultural Autonomy and its Contemporary Critics. Ephraim Nimni, ed. London and New York: Routledge, рр.13–40. (In English) Reports of the faculties at the Jagellonian about the plans for Ukrainian university studies, 1981. In: Bohachevsky-Chomiak, М., 1981. The Ukrainian university in Galicia. Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 5(4). Published by Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, doc.2, pp.521–524. (In Polish) Shabuldo, F.M., 2004. The Union of Horodło 1413. Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine: Vol.2: G-D. Kyiv: Naukova Dumka. [online] Avialable at: http://www.history. org.ua/?termin=Gorodelska_uniya_1413 [Accessed 15 march 2021] (In Ukrainian) Shvaguliak, M., 2013. Historical studies. Ukrainians at the crossroads and sharp turns of history (second half of the XIX – first half of the XX century). Lviv: Triada plus. (In Ukrainian) Smith, A. D., 1994. National Identity. Translate from English by P. Tarashchuk. Kyiv: Osnovy. (In Ukrainian) Stourzh, G., 2019. Equality of nationalities in the constitution and public administration of Austria (1848–1918). S. Paholkiv, ed. Lviv: Piramida. (In Ukrainian) Śliwiński, А., 1924. Nationalist chauvinism is the greatest obstacle to solving the matter. Kurj

K. Rahner

Mohamad Zaidin Mohamad, A. Z. Salleh, A. Hasan et al.

From an Islamic perspective, personal identity is an important issue because it involves a Muslim’s strength and profoundness towards his religious beliefs. However, the current scenario shows that Muslims are increasingly distancing themselves from religious beliefs due to the influence of temptations and challenges offered by the world today. This study intended to examine personal identity in more detail by focusing on discussions pertaining to its definition, criteria as well as challenges in efforts to consolidate the Islamic identity. This was a qualitative study that used the content analysis method on various reference materials. Findings show that the personal identity issue should be a priority for Muslims, especially for rulers and religious scholars. Suitable strategies and approaches should be designed as soon as possible so that Muslims stop being mesmerized by worldly developments and stop distancing themselves from the sacred teachings delivered by the Prophet SAW. Introduction The Prophet SAW had hinted about Islam’s loss of identity among Muslims. The Prophet SAW exhorted, “You will follow the road of those before you, step by step, a forearm’s length by a forearm’s length and if one of them falls into a monitor lizard’s hole surely you will follow suit and if one of them is joined by his wife on the pathway, surely you will follow suit” (al-Hakim, 1983). In one narration, we asked, “Are they the Jews and the Christians? HE answered, “who else if not the Jews and Christians” (al-Tabarani, t.th.). Hence, a keen intellect will be able to assert that the Islamic identity is an important fundamental element that helps build strength and profoundness in the Islamic community when confronted with the challenges and tests of contemporary life. This is the reason why the Prophet SAW had touched on this matter from the beginning. Definition of The Islamic Identity The word ‘identity’ according to the Cambridge Dictionary means, “who a person is, or the qualities of a person or group that make them different from others”. The word huwiyyah (identity) from the International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences Vol. 1 0 , No. 10, 2020, E-ISSN: 2222-6990 © 2020 HRMARS 201 linguistic aspect means, “a deep sense of fundamentals”. Some believe that it is the “tasghir" from the word huwah (ةوه) (Jamil, 1994). Identity, from a philosophical perspective, refers to the reality or actuality of a thing and the difference in values compared to others. It is also known as having a holistic personality (wihdat aldhat). This means that it is equal to the term “philosophy”, which means “he is he”, referring to the stability and sustainability of original characteristics although there are external changes. The essence of the matter is similar although there are changes to the surroundings (Ibn Manzur, 1414H). Ibn Hazm was of the view that identity refers to “only the facts of something and not anything else”. Moreover, between identity (huwiyyah) and the others (ghayriyyah), there is no intermediary medium that can be accepted by the human mind. Thus, what exits from one part enters into the other part, which is between huwayyah and ghayriyyah (Ibn Hazm, t.th). Briefly, Islamic identity means a Muslim’s faith and his pride in believing in Islam as well as respecting the values of the Islamic civilisation and culture, accentuate Islamic teachings, possess the freedom to practice either as an individual or in a community, implementing religious responsibilities and the obligation to preach to the human community (al-Nuri, 2009). Regrettably, some writers and academicians have only briefly or superficially discussed identity. They only marginally discussed identity without touching on its contents from the aspects of Islam and faith. Sometimes they have even gone out of context. They have also narrowed down the meaning of identity by centring on Arabic values and several Arabic-related characteristics of civilization, culture and the arts. Discussions were later narrowed down to Arabic racial ideologies. Thinking patterns such as these are indeed dangerous for the profoundness and unity of Muslims. Arab racism is a political movement that is based on ideologies such as bigotry and the asabiyyah spirit, which calls for the glorying of the Arab race as well as forming a rule based on blood relations, language and history, while totally ignoring religious affiliations (al-Jahni, 1420H). The emergence of this movement was partly pioneered by parties who were hostile towards Islam and wanted to create a barrier to the thought of unifying the Muslims. Indirectly making the racist ideology a second weapon to stab the Muslims after the collapse of the Caliphate in the hands of Ataturk in 1924. The most evident characteristic of Arab racist ideology is that it existed at the same time when there was an emergence of idiosyncratic calls that strayed away from seeking a practical solution to rebuild the unity of the ummah. The “Arab sentiment” was the main factor that had expedited this thinking in the minds of Muslims. However, in reality, those who advocated this thinking did not build a system or a government that controlled the Muslims based on racism. Conversely, what we hear is monarchy, socialism, democracy and others. This shows that sovereign racist values cannot possibly build Muslims and their civilization (Jabir, 2011). The next problem related to racism and identity concerns the Arabs who formed a racial group that has its own geographical space but is not united under the same historical and cultural patronage. Each remote area, which has its own history and cultural system, is frequently bound by its own situations, customs and legacies, hence, even though they share a similar language, it cannot bridge the gap between one group and another due to different dialects and pronunciations (Jabir, 2011). This situation not only affects the Arabs but can happen to most ethnic groups, including the Malays in the Malay Archipelago. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences Vol. 1 0 , No. 10, 2020, E-ISSN: 2222-6990 © 2020 HRMARS 202 Characteristics of An Islamic Identity The identity of a certain group of humans should have certain characteristics to enable it to be permanent and competitive. These characteristics are summarised according to three elements, namely trust, history and culture, which include the mother tongue, knowledge and art, literature, customs (uruf) and culture. An examination of Islamic identity reveals three elements, as mentioned above. 1. Trust Trust here means religion according to the aspects of thinking, syariah, faith and morality. Hence, the first thing that should be of priority in an Islamic identity is the merging of oneself with faith, which is translated as the show of loyalty towards faith as well as abiding by its demands. Islamic faith is the main component in a Muslim’s identity and personality. It is the highest and most noble component in a person’s identity. It mergers oneself to a perfect religion, the most noble scripture bestowed to the most noble Messenger in the most noble language through the most noble angel in the most noble world during the most noble month on the most noble night, which was the night of al-Qadr, with the most noble syariat and the most accurate indicator. Hence, if a Muslim attests to the monotheism of Allah SWT, that the Prophet is the Messenger, practice the religion with knowledge, awareness and faith and take the exhortations of Allah SWT (“verily my prayers, my worship, my life and my death is only for Allah SWT”) as the constitution and law of life, then one is a Muslim who possess a strong and profound identity. Islam has placed religion as the first characteristic of a person’s identity, the fundamentals in the issue of al-wala’ and al-bara’ (loyalty and betrayal). It clothes Islamic identity and acts as its main teachings. Islamic identity forbids its subjects from behaving according to an unIslamic identity because it is a form of lie and betrayal. Moreover, lies and betrayals are major transgressions in Islam (Nordin et a.l, 2015). The al-Quran has made this element a form of defence for its subjects due to what had happened to other subjects who were united by religion that helped form their identity. Religion is something that is comprehensive and inseparable because everything is because of Allah SWT, either prayers, worship, life or death. Whoever seeks a religion besides Islam will not be accepted. Islam is the physical and spiritual forms of religious teachings, the core and subsidiary elements that form the basis of Islamic identity as well as the privilege enjoyed by individuals and the Islam community. It is the characteristics of the privilege, either from the aspects of resources, time, place or layout. It differs from other celestial religions that have been corrupted as well as other creations by various schools of thought. Based on these features, Muslims are those who pray as how we pray, face the kiblat that we face, eat what we slaughtered, accept Allah SWT as their God, Islam as their religion and the Prophet Muhammad SAW as their Prophet (al-Masiri, 2009). 2. History Verily subjects without a history are subjects without a future, or in short, subjects without an identity. In reality, there are no subjects that exist without a history. Each subject has a history, either individually or as a community. Hence, the issue is not about the history but how the history is preserved, its glory days and decline recorded as well as the benefits, wisdom (ibrah) and lessons learned from what had happened. There is a group of humans International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences Vol. 1 0 , No. 10, 2020, E-ISSN: 2222-6990 © 2020 HRMARS 203 who do not have a noble history; they endeavour to glorify their history, write books to showoff the splendour of their hi

F.V. Anthony, C.A.M. Hermans

There is a strong evidence that transformational leadership gives rise to loftier motivation among the teaching staff, creative school innovation, enhanced learning results among students and critical openness to diversity in society. Little is known how school leaders can become better transformational leaders. Our research among school leaders of the Salesian schools in India seeks to verify if higher performance of transformational leadership is influenced by spiritual determinants (spiritual discernment, spiritual traits, spiritual capital, and spiritual experience), besides situational contingencies pertaining to personal profile and institutional features. The findings reveal that the prevalent leadership style in Salesian schools is transformational, and that it is strongly predicted by a combined spiritual trait of self-directed-cooperativeness and spiritual discernment, and moderately predicted by the situational contingencies of schools being private and having lesser student strength.

Yusuf Yaralıoğlu, Özcan Güngör

Suriyeli sığınmacıların 2011 yılından beri zorunlu göçe maruz kaldıkları bilinmektedir. Dolayısıyla yaşanan bu süreç, göç edilen Kilis’te dini sosyalleşme ile sığınmacıların yapısal uyum problemiyle karşılaşmalarına sebep olmuştur. Bu bağlamda çalışmanın problemi Suriyeli sığınmacıların dini sosyalleşmelerini yapısal uyum kurumları bağlamında anlamaya çalışmaktır. Çalışmada temelde nitel yöntem tercih edilmiş ve yarı yapılandırımış mülakat tekniği kullanılmıştır, bunun yanında yapının özneye etkisi dikkate alınarak yapısal uyum konusu anlaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Ayrıca çalışma anlayıcı (yorumlayıcı) yaklaşımla oluşturulmuş ve bir olgu bilim çalışması olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Zira göçmenler özne olarak zorunlu bir durumla karşılaşsalar da hem taşıdıkları yapısal özellikler hem de Türkiye’nin yapısal özelliklerinin onların habituslarını etkileyeceği düşünülerek yapı-aktör dikotomisi dikkate alınarak çözümlemeler yapılmıştır. Diğer yandan araştırma, kartopu örneklem yöntemiyle oluşturulmuştur. Araştırmanın verileri Kilis ilinin farklı mahallelerinde ikamet eden sığınmacılardan ve sığınmacıların mikro-sosyolojik deneyimleri göz önünde bulundurulsa da Giddens’in yapılaşmacı teorisinin yaklaşımları çerçevesinde oluşturulmuştur. Araştırmada dini grupların, mescitlerin ve sığınmacılar tarafından kurulan derneklerin yapısal uyum sürecinde farklı sosyal kurum ve kuruluşlardan dini sosyalleşme yoluyla sığınmacıları etkilediği tespit edilmiş ayrıca Arapçanın bu süreçte önemli bir rol oynadığı görülmüştür.

Nagy Hadi Hussein Al Yazidi

ABSTRACT: The study aimed to identify the methods and means used by the Holy Prophet in his dealings with the delegations of the Christians of Najran and Uday Ibn Hatim, and to devise advocacy and contractual issues from them, and their contemporary applications in the reality of Muslims today. To learn how the Prophet (practicing the values and principles of Islam) is practiced, by analyzing the text contained in the question and then linking it to contemporary reality, whenever possible, and the tool was represented in the diversity of methods and means that the Prophet pursued (such as dialogue, debate, wisdom and good advice, taking into account their customs, understandings and races prevailing on the side of kindness and softness, making arrivals to him more receptive to what he calls them to, and had to embody these methods and means represented by the person of the Prophet (The great impact of those coming to him, and accordingly, the Leading Prophet is the greatest leader who established the foundations of what is known today as diplomacy, and relations between countries, because of his unique personality that had a great impact in spreading Islamic preaching, The nature of the study required that it be from a preliminary and two studies. In the preface, the researcher dealt with the concept of the curriculum and belief with language and terminology and in the first topic the researcher addressed the guidance of the Prophet in receiving delegations and in the second topic the researcher discussed the approach of the Prophet (in dealing with Christian delegations and their applications in contemporary life, and the study reached to Knowing the method of the Prophet in his dealings with the delegations that presented to him through confirming the practice of the Prophet (with exemplary practical examples, which are better than what the leaders ’practice has reached today and attested to this distinctive behavior and great leadership characteristics, and what leaders and leaders today use in their practices It was considered by Muslims and the Prophet of humankind for more than 1440 yearsThe study concluded that the Prophet (derives his speech from the Noble Qur’an represented by dialogue, and argument, including his dialogue with the Christians of Najran, and his mention of the attributes of divinity in which the beliefs of the divine religions are in agreement. And he left the freedom of choice to contractual issues to those who interview them. In the light of the results, the study presented a group of recommendations and proposals. الملخص: هدفت الدراسة إلى التعرف على الأساليب والوسائل التي استخدمها الرسول الكريم في تعامله مع وفدي نصارى نجران وعدي ابن حاتم، واستنباط المسائل الدعوية والعقدية منها، وتطبيقاتها المعاصرة في واقع المسلمين اليوم، ولتحقيق هدف الدراسة اتبع الباحث المنهج الوصفي التحليلي في بيان المنهج النبوي في تصحيح العقيدة، للتعرف على كيفية ممارسة النبيلقيم ومبادئ الإسلام، وذلك بتحليل النص الوارد في المسألة ثم ربطه بالواقع المعاصر؛ ما أمكن، وتمثلت الأداة في تنوع الأساليب والوسائل التي سلكها النبي كالحوار والمناظرة والحكمة والموعظة الحسنة مع مراعاة أعرافهم وأفهامهم وأجناسهم مغلباً جانب الرفق واللين، جعل الوافدين إليه أكثر تقبلا لما يدعوهم إليه، وكان لتجسيد هذه الأساليب والوسائل ممثلة بشخص النبي  الأثر الكبير لدى الوافدين إليه، وعليه فالنبي القائد يعد أعظم قائد أسس أصول ما يعرف اليوم بالدبلوماسية، والعلاقات بين الدول وذلك لما يتمتع به من شخصية فذة كان لها الأثر الكبير في نشر الدعوة الإسلامية، وقد اقتضت طبيعة الدراسة بأن تكون من تمهيد ومبحثين ففي التمهيد تناول الباحث مفهوم المنهج والعقيدة لغة واصطلاحاً وفي المبحث الأول تناول الباحث هدي النبي في استقبال الوفود وفي المبحث الثاني تناول الباحث منهج النبي في التعامل مع وفود النصارى وتطبيقاتها في الحياة المعاصرة، وتوصلت الدراسة الى التعرف على منهج النبي في تعامله مع الوفود التي قدمت عليه وذلك من خلال تأكيد ممارسة النبيبأمثلة نموذجية عملية، والتي هي أفضل مما وصلت إليه ممارسة القادة اليوم ويشهد بذلك سلوكه المتميز وخصائصه القيادية العظيمة، وما ينتهجه اليوم الزعماء والقادة في ممارساتهم كان يعتبر أساساً عند المسلمين وعند نبي البشرية منذ أكثر من 1440عاما وقد خلصت الدراسة إلى أن النبي استمد خطابه من القرآن الكريم المتمثل في الحوار، والمجادلة بالتي هي أحسن، ومن ذلك حواره مع نصارى نجران، وذكره لصفات الألوهية التي تتفق فيها عقائد الديانات السماوية. وإلى ترك حرية الاختيار للمسائل العقدية لدى من يحاورهم. وفي ضوء النتائج قدمت الدراسة مجموعة من التوصيات والمقترحات.

Resul Ersöz

Classical Islamic Modernism is a movement that seeks solutions to problems of religious, political, scientific, economic, social, cultural, etc. It does this by activating the internal dynamics. In other words, it is a new model of interpretation of the Qur'an that aims to ensure that Muslims in particular and the entire humanity in general benefit from the Qur'an to the maximum extent. This movement corresponds to the first modernization efforts in the Islamic world. Based on the opinion, The Classical Islamic Modernism can be defined as follows: It is a civilization project that in order to ensure the correction and renewal of Muslims aims to return to essential resources (Qur'an and Sunnah) and to purify the Islamic faith from bid’at and superstition and to give the role to mind in the interpretation of holy texts and to be careful of tradition and to put distance to isrâiliyât and Islamizing the knowledge produced by the West and to restore the Ummah consciousness which has been damaged and to combat imperialism all together. Classical Islam Modernism, in addition to the reformist character who it take over from the pre-modernism reform movements with its features such as respect for reason and science and not being content with rumour and to make an consult to te'vil, to activite ictihâd has influenced many educateds and thinkers and intellectuals in the Islamic world. One of these intellectuals is Elmalili Hamdi Yazir too. Elmalili Hamdi Yazir (1878-1942), firstly, with his identity of constitutionalist he was one of the theological scholarly class of Ottoman Islamists, both as an active political figure, a thinker, a writer/translator, a hodja/teacher. However, after the opening of the second parliament on August 11, 1923, and the proclamation of the Republic is a historical character that was tried in the courts of Independence ostracized and forced into seclusion yet commissioned by parliament to write commentary (tafseer). Elmalili Hamdi is not against the caliphate (hil â fet) institution. Even so, -in Abdulhamid II period- he advocated constitutionalism which was a modern style of administration as an alternative to the Caliphate system, and even tried to put it on an Islamic ground by overlapping with the principle of shura (Şurâ) of Islam. On the other side, after the proclamation of the Republic, He has experienced a number of intellectual transformations with the abolition of the caliphate and with the revolutions. According to us, in order to understand that he is a modern commentator of Islam, with his exegesis (tafseer) book Hak Dini Kur’ân Dili it is necessary to evaluate his lectures, translations, articles and other works together. His tendency to question past scientific accumulation and the cultural acquis and, at times, to ignore them; it is only one of the things that bring it in parallel with Classical Islamic Modernism. But his attitude, -perhaps consciously- was not reflected in his exegesis book (Hak Dini Kur’ân Dili) enough. In some subjects, he criticized some of the Qur'anic interpretations of Classical Islamic Modernism. Muhammad Abduh's (1849-1905) commentary on Surah Al-Fil is one of them. Elmalili's efforts to explain some events from the scientific understanding of modern age with the principle of causality, and cause-effect relationship are another aspect that puts him at the same level with Classical Islamic Modernism. For example, He made an explanation about the scepter of Moses (pbuh) that turned into a snake/dragon: “The real transformation is not admissible.” In other words, it is not admissible to transform literally one thing into another. Furthermore, this (the scepter's turned into a snake/dragon), according to the “Law of Contradictions” which means “it is not possible to literally to drive anything away itself" is not a genuine transformation. On the other hand, it may be possible for the scepter to turn into snake or dragon in the mind, physically or spiritually. Another example is a matter of the creation of Jesus (pbuh) or the coming of fatherless to the world. Elmalili has taken a modernist approach in this matter too. According to Elmalili, a creature's creation from a mother and a father is a general law, not an absolute law. This is so. Because according to imperative there are exceptions in this law. Consequently, the creation of Jesus (Isa) is an exception and this is “atavism (Jeddâniyet)= to resemble to the original ancestor” that is to say, it's something like to resemble an uppermost ancestor. On the other hand, life owners are divided into two as monomer or diyamer (just to be his mother or to be his mother and his father). Therefore, Hz. Jesus is an example of life with a mother only. The third aspect of the subject can be male and female as well as two sexes from human beings. In time, one of them may prevail over another. Therefore, it is also possible to have two kinds of seeds in a body. What is the obstacle to explaining the situation of Mary in this way? It is possible to summarize some of Elmalili's other views which coincide with Classical Islamic Modernism as follows: The ictihâd, which means that Fakih’s use all his power to remove the sharia's practical provisions from the detailed evidences, in Elmalili, it corresponds to understanding and exploring the divine law. According to him, the theologians (ulemâ) is the obliged with ictihâd for the discovery of the divine provisions. According to Elmalili, should be used the science of the West, not the values of the West. We should not be afraid to read Western philosophy. Because that, means arming against them. In this context, he said: While the Western world translated our most important books until they reached our religion and Quranic sciences and added them to their own treasury of information and even studied the “ Mizân-i Kubra ” of Şa’râni, trying to draw conclusions that could falsify Islam, why should we be deprived of their scientific accumulation and why should we tend to be like them rather than being ourselves to avoid such deprivation? If the Christians who translate and read the Qur'an and armed with it against Islam do not become Muslims, a Muslim who would read and understand their philosophy and be armed with it against them, why get Christian? According to Elmalili, Islam doesn't obstruct progression. Contrarily, it's the guarantee of progression. According to him, the progress is a general name given to the increasing and continuing movement of humanity towards an absolute purpose. According to Elmalili, all sciences are respected. However, it is convenient for to use for goodness and for evil.  On the other hand, it is possible to see the traces of the “scholarly exegesis” which is popular in the modern era in the book of exegesis of Elmalili Hamdi. He is cautious towards “Isrâiliyyât”. According to Elmalili, “nesh” (to abrogate of) is a necessity of the universality of the Qur'an together with the change and development in social life. According to him, “nash” is both a truth and a law. He thinks parallel with Classical Islamic Modernism in the opposite of bid'at and superstition. According to Elmalili the Prophet (pbuh) has many miracles. But his greatest miracle is the Quran.

J. Wu

Vocal music education in the Chinese educational system has for a long time placed much importance on following the model of “Western Bel Canto”, but this may be about to change. Nowadays, with the rapid development of China's economic globalization and the integration of multiple cultures, the social background is changing dramatically, which brings great opportunity but also many challenges to vocal music education and teaching. This paper addresses a systematic discussion on the status and trend of vocal music education in the current social background of modern China, and gives rational thinking on how the new background reshapes the ideas and notions of vocal music education. Keywords—vocal music education; social background; multicultural integration; Chinese educational system; Bel Canto I. THE PRESENT STATUS OF VOCAL MUSIC EDUCATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF TRADITIONAL CULTURE AND MULTICULTURAL INTEGRATION IN CHINA The Chinese culture is one of the world’s oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in East Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between provinces, cities, and even towns as well. With China being one of the earliest ancient civilizations, Chinese culture is extremely diverse and varying, and it has a profound effect in the philosophy, virtue, etiquette and traditions of Asia to date [1]. China has a long history, and the masses of working people created a splendid culture of our country. Working people in different historical background created excellent national culture, which has diverse faces and rich content, including not only literature and art, but also philosophy and religion. The national culture needs to be inherited and developed from generation to generation [2]. In modern China, however, the digitalization and multiplicity of cultural manifestations have been changed dramatically with the continuous development of social economy. With the social change and development, cultural diversity has been blended in people’s life, which can be considered as the multicultural integration of other nations and countries under the premise of inheriting our own traditional culture during the process of practice and social developing, and then creates a humorous cultural atmosphere, contending on the basis of our own culture supplemented by the other cultures [3]. Therefore, the importance to the penetration of these multicultural elements into our education should be highlighted and, in the new era, educational workers should also undertake an important responsibility of inheriting and developing our national culture. In recent years, music education and teaching have taken more and more attention in society. Music education is an important carrier of diverse cultural elements, and bears the mission of national cultural development. Multicultural integration leads to the diversified development of music. With the establishment and improvement of the modern education system, the music education embarks on the right track of cultural inheritance and integration, termed the multicultural music education (MME). Music preserves special meanings in MME since learning music from various cultures can help students to form worldwide perspectives. Facing the reality of a multicultural society, it is essential that we understand people in a more complete cultural way through musical, artistic and philosophical beliefs. Previously, many studies have emphasized the importance of MME in the music classroom within a multicultural society in modern China. In such a society the case of cultural traditions warrants particular attention in the field of music education [4]. However, for a long time in people's traditional ideas the foreign things are always better than ours. From the beginning of the 20th century, Chinese music education followed the Western music model. Due to external and internal factors, the development of the modern music education with respect to our traditional culture has slowed down. The influx of foreign music style has also a significant impact on our national music education, resulting in students with low interest in folk music learning, insufficient traditional cultural curriculum set by schools, and low attention to national music education from the society [5]. In vocal music, the curriculum is in accordance with Western Bel Canto with little Chinese traditional singing style in vocal music teaching. Today, the Bel Canto model is widely applied for vocal music education in China. Therefore, Western singing style is mostly used in school vocal music teaching [6]. However, in recent years many music institutes in China have carried out a series of educational reforms, ranging from vocal music courses to teaching methods. Changes have taken place Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 322 2nd International Seminar on Education Research and Social Science (ISERSS 2019) Copyright © 2019, the Authors. Published by Atlantis Press. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). 460 and, at the same time, we begin to realize that Chinese traditional singing style not only is highly artistic, but also represents an important section of our national culture, bearing the responsibility for heritage of Chinese culture. This inheritance could cultivate students to have national consciousness, to absorb good traditional culture for the future vocal music learning. These reforms have injected new vitality into vocal music education in modern China and, as expected, received good results for both the teachers and students [7]. II. THE COMBINATION OF VOCAL MUSIC EDUCATION WITH AESTHETICS AND PSYCHOLOGY IN CHINA In recent years, some other areas of vocal music education, such as the psychology and aesthetics of music art, have also been explored and practiced in China. These reforms have injected new vitality into vocal music education in modern China and, as expected, received good results for both the teachers and students. Psychology plays a critical role in music education, which focuses on students’ mental quality and learning power, and devotes itself to the prosperity of individual and society. Previous investigations have shown that positive psychology contributes to the improvement of cognitive ability and executive ability, which is conducive to physical and mental health and helpful to the formation of new social behavior, but negative psychology, is opposite. Therefore, it is quite important for educational construction to make students form a positive character and positive behavior model starting from the positive psychology [8]. Historically, scholars of various stripes have pondered the nature of music, who have proposed a number of theories concerning the origin and purpose of music and some have pursued scientific approaches to investigating them [9], resulting in a new interdisciplinary subject namely music psychology, which is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas and has a long history dating back to the end of the 19th century. It is a distinctive strand of psychology that has grown in strength over the past decades. Much of the research has been of interest and relevance to music education and covers a wide variety of musical engagement [10]. As in education more generally, psychology played a major role in music education through the development of psychometric tests to assess musical ability. One century ago Stumpf suggested a number of simple aural tests that music teachers might undertake to select students. Subsequently, a range of assessments has been developed that can be administered to groups of children of different ages and adults [11]. Similar to the development of music psychology in other countries, the emergence of music psychology in China paralleled the development of a nationwide educational system. The concept of music psychology emerged in China in the late 1980s when school administrative psychology, which emphasized the use of psychological theory and practice in school administration and management, was being introduced from Western countries [12]. Recently, music psychology has practiced for vocal teaching in Chinese educational system. It has gone through many stages, including introduction and imitation of research in Western countries, learning from others’ experience and reform, and getting independent from western psychology [13]. On the other side, to learn music culture we must explore the aesthetic value of music culture. There are many beautiful things in real life. The process of discovering beauty in real life is the process of elevating the aesthetic ability of people. For individuals, aesthetic education is very important. Aesthetic education is also an important part of music education. In the process of aesthetic experience, students will recognize the beauty in real life, experience the beauty of natural scenery and the truth, the goodness and the beauty of human nature, and enhance their own moral level and cognitive level in a subtle manner. Some witnesses drew attention to music as a language and urged the inclusion of music in the ordinary scheme of education on the same terms as language and literature, since it appealed to the same faculties of emotion and judgment and the same general aesthetic principles, while others laid much stress on the value of the fine arts in developing concentration of mind, accuracy of observation and a genuine appreciation of natural beauty and artistic achievement, and in stimulating the growth of the imaginative, critical and creative faculties [14]. Therefore, aesthetic education can reflect the humanistic nature of music education and can successfully accomplish the task of talent cultivation of music education. Nowadays, the aesthetic of vocal music education is also changing continuou

Rebecca Springer

By analyzing the little-studied sermons of Bartholomew, bishop of Exeter 1161–84, against the backdrop of archival sources for the history of the city of Exeter, this article examines the bishop’s relationship with his cathedral city. Charitable activities in twelfth-century Exeter involved co-operation among urban lay elites, the secular clergy, religious houses and the bishop himself. Bartholomew preached regularly to lay audiences at Exeter cathedral. His sermons endeavoured to engage local interests and emphasized the importance of charitable works. This article points toward a broader understanding of the ways in which a twelfthcentury bishop might converse with his subjects by responding to, and cultivating, local religious cultures. Writing in the twelve-thirties, the chronicler Roger de Wendover recorded in his Flores Historiarum a story about Bartholomew, bishop of Exeter from 1161 to 1184. According to Wendover, Bartholomew was out on a visitation of his diocese and stopped in an unnamed village overnight, lodging in a house near the village cemetery. During the night, he was disturbed by the voices of children wailing: ‘Alas for us! Alas for us! Who will give alms and pray for us now, or celebrate masses for us?’ The bishop sent his chamberlain out to search for a light; the chamberlain returned reporting that a man of the village has just died, and that the villagers were mourning because the man used to keep a priest in his house to say masses and prayers for the dead. The man had been ‘a father to orphans and a consolation to the wretched, one who spent his income on the poor and practiced hospitality while he lived’. The following day, after consulting with the villagers, Bartholomew provided an endowment so that the priest whom the dead man used to pay could continue to celebrate masses.1 At first glance, the story looks like a more or less standard iteration of ‘ideal bishop’ tropes. But evidence from Exeter during Bartholomew’s episcopate suggests that elements of Wendover’s report – the initiative of a pious layman, the importance of charity towards the poor and deceased, and, most importantly, the bishop’s responsiveness – may actually ref lect Bartholomew of Exeter’s relationship with certain social groups of his cathedral city. 1 Roger de Wendover, Flores Historiarum, ed. H. G. Hewlett (Rolls ser., lxxxiv, 3 vols., 1886–9), i. 18–20. * An earlier version of this article was presented at the conference ‘Shaping the officer: communities and practices of accountability in premodern Europe’ at the German Historical Institute, London, 8–10 Nov. 2017. The author is grateful to those who offered comments at this conference, as well as to this journal’s anonymous reviewers. D ow naded rom http/academ ic.p.com /histres/articlect/92/256/267/5603417 by gest on 13 Feruary 2020 268 The cultivation of charity in twelfth-century Exeter © 2019 Institute of Historical Research Historical Research, vol. 92, no. 256 (May 2019) Scholarship on bishops of the central middle ages has flourished in the past two decades.2 Once seen from a largely institutional perspective – as more or less efficient cogs in an emergent ‘papal monarchy’, either championing papal reforms or colluding with secular rulers – bishops are now portrayed as multifaceted pastors, patrons, lords and politicians whose actions must be analyzed in regional, diocesan and even urban contexts. Bishops drew on religious imagery, ideology and tradition to create, collectively, an ‘episcopal culture’; at the same time, they strategized and responded to political, social and economic forces in their localities. Historians have tracked episcopal relationships with local communities through the lenses of palace architecture, tithing and clothing, to name just a few examples.3 They have also documented many examples of bishops supporting hospitals and other works of charity, participating alongside lay people and religious in localized ‘spiritual economies’.4 Charity is in many ways an ideal lens through which to view a late twelfth-century English bishop interacting with his cathedral city.5 A preoccupation of theologians around the turn of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, charity was particularly associated with the model bishop.6 But it was also inherently social, and therefore local – an activity and a value with which bishops, lay people, secular clergy and religious alike could meaningfully engage. Hospitals multiplied in twelfthand thirteenth-century England, established and supported by lords, bishops, religious institutions, lay individuals and civic groups.7 Another manifestation of charity could be participation in a guild or 2 See, in particular, E. Palazzo, L’Êvêque et son image: L’illustration du Pontifical au Moyen Âge (Turnhout, 1999); M. C. Miller, The Bishop’s Palace: Architecture and Authority in Medieval Italy (Ithaca, N.Y., 2000); G. Albertoni, Die Herrschaft des Bischofs: Macht und Gesellschaft zwischen Etsch und Inn im Mittelalter (9.–11. Jahrhuntert) (Bolzano, 2003); The Bishop: Power and Piety at the First Millennium, ed. S. Gilsdorf (Munich, 2004); The Bishop Reformed: Studies of Episcopal Power and Culture in the Central Middle Ages, ed. J. S. Ott and A. T. Jones (Aldershot, 2007); M. F. Giandrea, Episcopal Culture in Late Anglo-Saxon England (Woodbridge, 2007); S. Pazold, Episcopus: Wissen über Bischöfe im Frankenreich des späten 8. bis frühen 10. Jahrhunderts (Ostfildern, 2008); A. T. Jones, Noble Lord, Good Shepherd: Episcopal Power and Piety in Aquitaine, 877–1050 (Leiden, 2009); T. Reuter, ‘A Europe of bishops: the age of Wulfstan of York and Burchard of Worms’, in Patterns of Episcopal Power: Bishops in 10th and 11th Century Western Europe, ed. L. Körntgen and D. Wassenhoven (Berlin, 2011); J. Eldevik, Episcopal Power and Ecclesiastical Reform in the German Empire: Tithes, Lordship, and Community, 950–1150 (Cambridge, 2012); J. S. Ott, Bishops, Authority and Community in Northwestern Europe, c.1050–1150 (Cambridge, 2015). Despite dealing with a much earlier period, C. Rapp, Holy Bishops in Late Antiquity: the Nature of Christian Leadership in an Age of Transformation (Berkeley, Calif., 2005), has also been an important inf luence. 3 Miller; Eldevik; Ott, pp. 72–8. 4 This analytical framework is used by S. Sweetinburgh in The Role of the Hospital in Medieval England: Gift-Giving and the Spiritual Economy (Dublin, 2004). J. W. Brodman, Charity and Welfare: Hospitals and the Poor in Medieval Catalonia (Philadelphia, Pa., 1998), pp. 8–18; N. Orme and M. Webster, The English Hospital, 1070–1570 (New Haven, Conn., 1995), p. 34; C. Rawcliffe, Medicine for the Soul: the Life, Death and Resurrection of an English Medieval Hospital (Stroud, 1999), esp. chs. 2, 5; S. C. Watson, ‘City as charter: charity and the lordship of English towns, 1170–1250’, in Cities, Texts and Social Networks, 400–1500: Experiences and Perceptions of Medieval Urban Space, ed. C. Goodson, A. E. Lester and C. Symes (Farnham, 2010), pp. 235–62, at pp. 235–49; S. M. Brasher, Hospitals and Charity: Religious Culture and Civic Life in Medieval Northern Italy (Manchester, 2017). A. Brown, Popular Piety in Late Medieval England: the Diocese of Salisbury (Oxford, 1995), esp. ch. 2, paints a nuanced picture of both connections and tensions between lay people and the cathedral. 5 An example is Sethina Watson’s insightful comparison of the hosptial foundations of Reginald, bishop of Wells 1174–91, and Jocelin, bishop of Bath and Wells 1206–42, ‘The bishop and his cathedral cities’, in Jocelin of Wells: Bishop, Builder, Courtier, ed. R. Dunning (Woodbridge, 2010), pp. 67–98, at pp. 90–8. 6 J. W. Brodman, Charity and Religion in Medieval Europe (Washington, D.C., 2009), pp. 9–44; S. Hamilton, Church and People in the Medieval West, 900–1200 (Harlow, 2013), pp. 92–3. 7 M. Rubin, Charity and Community in Medieval Cambridge (Cambridge, 1987); Orme and Webster, ch. 1; Sweetinburgh; S. C. Watson, ‘The origins of the English hospital’, Trans. Royal Hist. Soc., 6th ser., xvi (2006), 75–94; S. C. Watson, ‘The sources for English hospitals 1100 to 1400’, in Quellen zur europäischen Spitalgeschichte in Mittelalter und Früher Neuzeit, ed. M. Scheutz and others (Vienna, 2010), pp. 65–103; D. X. Carpenter, ‘Harehope hospital and the arrival of the Order of St. Lazarus in England’, Northern History, liv (2017), 3–14. D ow naded rom http/academ ic.p.com /histres/articlect/92/256/267/5603417 by gest on 13 Feruary 2020 The cultivation of charity in twelfth-century Exeter 269 Historical Research, vol. 92, no. 256 (May 2019) © 2019 Institute of Historical Research fraternity, or the endowment of anniversary masses and other intercessory prayers.8 These associations facilitated contact and influence, not only among lay members, but between citizens, clergy and, as we shall see, the local bishop. This article analyzes the city of Exeter’s relationship with Bishop Bartholomew as an example of how a bishop might forge connections with local communities, in this case by responding to and cultivating an enthusiasm for charity. In order to do this, it begins with the community itself. It examines the practice of charity and the provision of intercessory prayer in the context of religious life in twelfth-century Exeter, arguing that charitable activities depended on and strengthened co-operation among urban lay elites, the secular clergy, religious houses and, crucially, the bishop himself. Then, by analyzing the form and content of Bartholomew of Exeter’s sermons, the article demonstrates that the bishop preached regularly to lay and mixed audiences in Exeter, particularly around the city’s more important feasts. In his sermons, Bartholomew addressed his listeners not only through engaging rhetoric and emotional appeal, but by offering practical advice and encouragement for acts of charity. Focusing on the importance of charity in Exeter leads toward a broader understanding of the way a t

Christopher Hrynkow, Maria Power

H. Bedau

Cassandra D. Chaney

Joseph P. Anderson, D. Collette

Rainer Stahl

The text «Martin Luther inspires and stimulates contradictions» continues the second part of the artcile based on the report read 11. April 2017 in Tscheboskary and published in the previous volume of the almanac. The author raises such questions as the Luther’s attitude to the new picture of the universe (of Copernicus), the reformer’s approach to the relation between Jews and Christians and his view on the Muslims. The author insists on careful historical understanding of Luther’s positions, especially then they are far from the modern one. In the Jewish question, Luther used to be very critical and severe, but the author emphasizes that no government followed specifically his suggestions and ideas. As to the Luther’s approach to the Muslims , in the author’s opinion, the only attractive theme is his demand to understand the other religion correctly. It’s clear that for the contemporary ethnical situation in Europe make necessary for Lutherans to re-estimate Luther. The author comes to conclusion that the only idea that should be taken today is Luther’s understanding of the Revelation as made by Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ.

Ladislav Nekvapil, Východočeské muzeum v Pardubicích

The paper presents the developments in the religious situation in the Czech Lands (especially in East Bohemia) in the 18th century before the Edict of Tolerance (1781). It is necessary to reflect on the official confessional politics of the ruling Habsburg dynasty and the single official Church as well as to present a real picture of the religious situation in the various parts of the Czech Lands. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of religious situation in the Czech Lands during the 18th century, with a special focus on the relations of the official Latin Church and the ruling House of Habsburg with so-called non-Catholics, i.e. people recognizing the legacy of the Czech and European Reformation of the 15th and 16th centuries even though their confessional allegiance in the reference period was far from explicit or clear. When it comes to the Latin Church in Central European countries united under the rule of the House of Habsburg the 17th and 18th centuries were characterized by regaining the lost grounds. During recatholization the Habsburgs accepted the CathoHistoria Slavorum Occidentis 2018, nr 3 (18) ISSN 2084-1213 DOI: 10.15804/hso180304 * The contribution with the same title was presented by author at the conference „Confessional Politics in Early Modern Central Europe“ (Budapest, Hungary, 30 November–1 December 2017). 65 CONFESSIONAL POLITICS AND SECRET NON-CATHOLICISM lic Church as their “partner” in consolidating the political and religious situation and in pursuing their own goals on the territory controlled by them. In order to succeed they needed to unify the religion in all parts of the society, i.e. the process known in the Czech Lands as “recatholization”, as there was nothing to prevent this process after the victory of Ferdinand II, supported by the troops of the Catholic League, in the Battle of Bílá Hora (White Mountain) on 8th November 1620. Using a military as well as cultural pressure the monarch sought mainly to eliminate approximately 80 % of Protestants (non-Catholics) living in Bohemia and Moravia1 before the Battle of Bílá Hora (White Mountain). In particular in the first years of recatholization forced conversion to Catholicism was used in the cities (so-called Dragonnades) whereas in the countryside the options for deployment of troops were somewhat limited; these measures did not bring long-term results, in particular not in regions where non-Catholic confessions were a part of universally widespread traditional spiritual and cultural heritage of majority population as preserved for many generations.2 One of such regions at that time was the region of Chrudim (East Bohemia) where already throughout the 15th century the Unity of Brethren3 had gained a strong position, even in the institutional sense.4 Similarly to the regions of Hradec Králové, Nový Bydžov or northern parts of the country the implementation of Counter-Reformation measures was not very successful in the region of Chrudim and in particular in the countryside there were still many non-Catholics, unwilling to follow the religious teachings of one official Church. As of mid-17th century when the recatholization, slowed down or fully suspended due to the protracted conflict in the form of the Thirty Years’ War, started anew there were approximately 18 % of non-Catholics in the population in the region of Chrudim, i.e. quite a significant share compared to southern or western parts of Bohemia. Such non-Catholics were not concentrated in the cities where, for the reasons mentioned above, the process of recatholization 1 T. Winkelbauer, Österreichische Geschichte 1522–1699: Ständefreiheit und Fürstenmacht, Teil 2, Wien 2003, p. 27. 2 The author of this paper deals with problematics of non-Catholic confessions in the region of East Bohemia after 1621 with an emphasis on rural society in L. Nekvapil, Východočeští nekatolíci v době baroka a osvícenství. Chrudimský kraj v letech 1621–1781, Pardubice 2015. 3 The Unity of the Brethren (Latin: Unitas Fratrum) is an original Czech denomination inspired by the ideas of Petr Chelčický (1390–1460), radical Czech reformist, and established in 1457 in Kunvald. This Presbyterian and synodian denomination emphasises the practical Christian life more strongly than teachings or Church tradition. 4 Details see F. Hrejsa, Sborové Jednoty bratrské, Praha 1939. 66 LADISLAV NEKVAPIL can be seen as successful (at least formally) but in the countryside, in particular on smaller menors and estates along the southwestern border of the region of Chrudim and also on small estates concentrated in the vicinity of the regional capital.5 We therefore cannot say that the non-Catholics were spread evenly throughout the region as they were present in relatively narrow and clearly defined areas with suitable conditions for their existence. The essential factors contributing to the survival of these non-Catholics included mainly the geographic location of the locality and its landscape, condition of the Catholic parish administration there and speed of the renewal and reconstruction of such administration, the distance between such locations and the parish centres, direct (in)activity of religious orders and religious brotherhoods, frequent contacts between the population and foreign Protestant countries and in particular contacts with returning emigrants, and also the approach of local nobles and officials to solving religious problems, i.e. whether or not such nobles and officials were agile or lukewarm when it came to recatholization.6 In East Bohemia (namely in the region of Chrudim) the numbers of secret nonCatholics did not decline sharply until 1670s when the decline, albeit often only ostensible, was probably caused, firstly, by the loss or significant restriction of contacts with foreign Protestant countries on one side and, secondly, by the consolidation of Catholic Church administration and its system of parishes.7 In addition, considering the renewed activity of secret non-Catholics in many locations of the region of Chrudim during the 18th century we should also mention that the Evangelicals went into hiding in the last third of the 17th century due to the above-mentioned 5 They were especially menors of Zdechovice, Choltice, Heřmanův Městec, Seč, Nasavrky and Rychmburk, near the regional city Chrudim estates of Slatiňany, Přestavlky, Zaječice, Třibřichy and more. See Mapa výskytu nekatolíků na Chrudimsku v polovině 17. století [The map of the occurrence of non-Catholics in the Chrudim region in 1651] [in:] L. Nekvapil, Náboženská struktura Chrudimského kraje v polovině 17. století, Východočeský sborník historický 19 (2011), pp. 147–170, especially p. 169. 6 The factors characterizing the secret Evangelicalism after the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia are detailed approximated [in:] O. Macek, Tajné evangelictví jako následek vestfálského míru? Pokus o charakteristiku jednoho fenoménu, [in:] Od konfesijní konfrontace ke konfesijnímu míru. Sborník z konference k 360. výročí uzavření vestfálského míru, eds. J. Zdichynec et al., Ústí nad Orlicí 2008, pp. 106–126, especially pp. 112–123. These factors for then Chrudim region see in L. Nekvapil, Náboženská struktura Chrudimského kraje, pp. 147–170; idem, Náboženská a církevně-správní situace na Chrudimsku v 18. století ve světle zpovědních výkazů, Theatrum historiae 7 (2010), pp. 147–177. 7 Moreover, the area of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague was significantly reduced when the Roman Catholic Diocese of Litoměřice was carved out in 1655 and later the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hradec Králové in 1664, and this reduction can also be seen as a major change. 67 CONFESSIONAL POLITICS AND SECRET NON-CATHOLICISM loss of ties with foreign Protestant milieu and also due to the fear of being accused by informers informing the officials and of restrictive measures taken by the state and the Church. German Pietism, spread through Protestant literature and emphasizing practical Christian piety independent of the religious life organized by the Church, might have also played a role. Regular annual records of Easter confessions introduced first in 16718 may be seen as a certain milestone, formally marking the end of the first stage of recatholization after the Battle of Bílá Hora (White Mountain) because the confession and Holy Communion were a precondition for being recognized as a devout practicing Catholic who did not need to be suspected of heresy. Otherwise the confession registers of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague became an appropriate evidence and efficient instrument to keep records of and potentially punish people avoiding the confession and Holy Communion who were, depending on the type and degree of offense, called “negligentes”, “de haeresi suspecti” or “haeretici” by the Catholic Church. Beginning from 1670s the Catholic Church focused fully on recatholization of the population living in the countryside after the Catholic Church, with the assistance from the state and using restrictive regulations issued by the state, had dealt successfully with non-Catholic population of cities and towns and non-Catholic aristocrats. Compared to the situation the Church had been in 20 years earlier, i.e. directly after the Thirty Years’ War, a number of things changed, allowing the Church to focus (without any physical violence) on the spiritual world and the world of thoughts of a common man: the Catholic parish administration was at least partly consolidated, i.e. the Church structure was reinforced by additional staff as required on the local level (using the previously neglected institute of chaplains),9 the administration structure of the Catholic Church changed (making the Archdiocese smaller by carving out two new Dioceses, establishing vicarages as a middle level of Church administration, and overall decentralization), religious acts performed by the Church started to be recorded (registers of births, deaths and marriages,

Shīʿī Ijtihād, Christopher Pooya Razavian