Hasil untuk "Indo-Iranian languages and literature"

Giovanni Pighizzini

A turn in a computation of a pushdown automaton is a switch from a phase in which the height of the pushdown store increases to a phase in which it decreases. Given a pushdown or one-counter automaton, we consider, for each string in its language, the minimum number of turns made in accepting computations. We prove that it cannot be decided if this number is bounded by any constants. Furthermore, we obtain a non-recursive trade-off between pushdown and one-counter automata accepting in a finite number of turns and finite-turn pushdown automata, that are defined requiring that the constant bound is satisfied by each accepting computation. We prove that there are languages accepted in a sublinear but not constant number of turns, with respect to the input length. Furthermore, there exists an infinite proper hierarchy of complexity classes, with the number of turns bounded by different sublinear functions. In addition, there is a language requiring a number of turns which is not constant but grows slower than each of the functions defining the above hierarchy.

Nripesh Niketan, Vaatsalya Shrivastva

We present CrossTL, a universal programming language translator enabling bidirectional translation between multiple languages through a unified intermediate representation called CrossGL. Traditional approaches require separate translators for each language pair, leading to exponential complexity growth. CrossTL uses a single universal IR to facilitate translations between CUDA, HIP, Metal, DirectX HLSL, OpenGL GLSL, Vulkan SPIR-V, Rust, and Mojo, with Slang support in development. Our system consists of: language-specific lexers/parsers converting source code to ASTs, bidirectional CrossGL translation modules implementing ToCrossGLConverter classes for importing code and CodeGen classes for target generation, and comprehensive backend implementations handling full translation pipelines. We demonstrate effectiveness through comprehensive evaluation across programming domains, achieving successful compilation and execution across all supported backends. The universal IR design enables adding new languages with minimal effort, requiring only language-specific frontend/backend components. Our contributions include: (1) a unified IR capturing semantics of multiple programming paradigms, (2) a modular architecture enabling extensibility, (3) a comprehensive framework supporting GPU compute, graphics programming, and systems languages, and (4) empirical validation demonstrating practical viability of universal code translation. CrossTL represents a significant step toward language-agnostic programming, enabling write-once, deploy-everywhere development.

Kayo Tei, Haruto Mishina, Naoki Yamamoto et al.

Systematic discovery of optimization paths in quantum circuit simplification remains a challenge. Today, ZX-calculus, a computing model for quantum circuit transformation, is attracting attention for its highly abstract graph-based approach. Whereas existing tools such as PyZX and Quantomatic offer domain-specific support for quantum circuit optimization, visualization and theorem-proving, we present a complementary approach using LMNtal, a general-purpose hierarchical graph rewriting language, to establish a diagrammatic transformation and verification platform with model checking. Our methodology shows three advantages: (1) manipulation of ZX-diagrams through native graph transformation rules, enabling direct implementation of basic rules; (2) quantified pattern matching via QLMNtal extensions, greatly simplifying rule specification; and (3) interactive visualization and validation of optimization paths through state space exploration. Through case studies, we demonstrate how our framework helps understand optimization paths and design new algorithms and strategies. This suggests that the declarative language LMNtal and its toolchain could serve as a new platform to investigate quantum circuit transformation from a different perspective.

Ganesh U. Thite

Current paper looks at the vicissitudes of thought on violence and non-violence in India, from Vedic period to the present. The early Vedic people lived a nomadic life and practiced customary animal sacrifice. Gradually, however, they started using euphemisms in connection with ritualistic violence and switched subsequently to non-violent rituals. Possibly, because there was a lot of opposition to ritualistic violence, mainly from the Buddhist and the Jaina thinkers, even the later Hinduism ultimately accepted the principle of ahiṃsā (non-violence). Although at present most followers of Vedic rituals do not practice violence when performing Vedic rituals, some others still partly accept it and act accordingly. Also, there is some ritualistic violence outside the Vedic ritual, but there is definitely a change in outlook.

Giuseppe Castagna, Loïc Peyrot

We define and study "row polymorphism" for a type system with set-theoretic types, specifically union, intersection, and negation types. We consider record types that embed row variables and define a subtyping relation by interpreting types into sets of record values and by defining subtyping as the containment of interpretations. We define a functional calculus equipped with operations for field extension, selection, and deletion, its operational semantics, and a type system that we prove to be sound. We provide algorithms for deciding the typing and subtyping relations. This research is motivated by the current trend of defining static type system for dynamic languages and, in our case, by an ongoing effort of endowing the Elixir programming language with a gradual type system.

Ashmal Vayani, Dinura Dissanayake, Hasindri Watawana et al.

Existing Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) generally focus on only a few regions and languages. As LMMs continue to improve, it is increasingly important to ensure they understand cultural contexts, respect local sensitivities, and support low-resource languages, all while effectively integrating corresponding visual cues. In pursuit of culturally diverse global multimodal models, our proposed All Languages Matter Benchmark (ALM-bench) represents the largest and most comprehensive effort to date for evaluating LMMs across 100 languages. ALM-bench challenges existing models by testing their ability to understand and reason about culturally diverse images paired with text in various languages, including many low-resource languages traditionally underrepresented in LMM research. The benchmark offers a robust and nuanced evaluation framework featuring various question formats, including true/false, multiple choice, and open-ended questions, which are further divided into short and long-answer categories. ALM-bench design ensures a comprehensive assessment of a model's ability to handle varied levels of difficulty in visual and linguistic reasoning. To capture the rich tapestry of global cultures, ALM-bench carefully curates content from 13 distinct cultural aspects, ranging from traditions and rituals to famous personalities and celebrations. Through this, ALM-bench not only provides a rigorous testing ground for state-of-the-art open and closed-source LMMs but also highlights the importance of cultural and linguistic inclusivity, encouraging the development of models that can serve diverse global populations effectively. Our benchmark is publicly available.

Hansi Hettiarachchi, Tharindu Ranasinghe, Paul Rayson et al.

The first Workshop on Language Models for Low-Resource Languages (LoResLM 2025) was held in conjunction with the 31st International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COLING 2025) in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. This workshop mainly aimed to provide a forum for researchers to share and discuss their ongoing work on language models (LMs) focusing on low-resource languages, following the recent advancements in neural language models and their linguistic biases towards high-resource languages. LoResLM 2025 attracted notable interest from the natural language processing (NLP) community, resulting in 35 accepted papers from 52 submissions. These contributions cover a broad range of low-resource languages from eight language families and 13 diverse research areas, paving the way for future possibilities and promoting linguistic inclusivity in NLP.

Andrew Blinn, Xiang Li, June Hyung Kim et al.

Large language models (LLMs) have reshaped the landscape of program synthesis. However, contemporary LLM-based code completion systems often hallucinate broken code because they lack appropriate context, particularly when working with definitions not in the training data nor near the cursor. This paper demonstrates that tight integration with the type and binding structure of a language, as exposed by its language server, can address this contextualization problem in a token-efficient manner. In short, we contend that AIs need IDEs, too! In particular, we integrate LLM code generation into the Hazel live program sketching environment. The Hazel Language Server identifies the type and typing context of the hole being filled, even in the presence of errors, ensuring that a meaningful program sketch is always available. This allows prompting with codebase-wide contextual information not lexically local to the cursor, nor necessarily in the same file, but that is likely to be semantically local to the developer's goal. Completions synthesized by the LLM are then iteratively refined via further dialog with the language server. To evaluate these techniques, we introduce MVUBench, a dataset of model-view-update (MVU) web applications. These applications serve as challenge problems due to their reliance on application-specific data structures. We find that contextualization with type definitions is particularly impactful. After introducing our ideas in the context of Hazel we duplicate our techniques and port MVUBench to TypeScript in order to validate the applicability of these methods to higher-resource languages. Finally, we outline ChatLSP, a conservative extension to the Language Server Protocol (LSP) that language servers can implement to expose capabilities that AI code completion systems of various designs can use to incorporate static context when generating prompts for an LLM.

Huda Salih

ڕێنڤیسا ئێكگرتی ب فاكتەرەكێ‌ گرنگێ ستانداربونا زمانی دهێتە هەژمارتن.هەر چەندە كێشەیێن نڤیسینێ‌ د هەمی زماناندا هەنه، بەلێ‌ دڤێت چارەیەك ژ لایێ كەسانێن بسپورڤە بۆ بهێتە دیتن.د ئەڤێ‌ ڤەكۆلینێدا چەند پیتەیەكێن، كو كێشە و بۆچونێن جیاواز ل سەر هەین هاتینە دەستنیشانكرن ل گەل بەرچاڤكرنا بۆچونێن چەندین زمانڤانان و هينانا چەندين بەلگەیێن پێدڤی، كو ڤەكۆلەرێ‌ ئێخستینە بەرچاڤ و ل دوماهیێ بریار ل سەر هەبون یان نەبونا ئەوێ‌ پیتێ‌ د ڕێنڤیسا زمانێ‌ كوردیدا هاتیە دان. د ئەنجامێن ئەڤێ‌ ڤەكۆلینێدا خۆیا دبیت، كو هندەك ژ ئەوان پیتێن كێشە و بۆچونێن جیاواز ل سەر هەین، كو وەك داتا بۆ ڤەكۆلینێ‌ هاتینە هەلبژارتن، ئەو ژى: < ح ،ڕ، ع، غ، ڵ، ¡، وو> د ئەنجاماندا خۆیا دبیت، كو د ڕینڤیسا زمانێ‌ كوردیدا هەبونا خۆ هەیه و ئاخڤتنكەرێن كورد هەست ب هەبونا ئەوێ‌ دكەن و د گەلەك پەیڤاندا دووبارە دبیتەڤە، هەروەسا ب پيتەكا زمانێ‌ كوردی هاتیە دانان، چونكی د گەلەك پەیڤاندا ب گوهۆڕینا ئەوێ‌ ل گەل پیتا دبیتە ئەگەرێ‌ گوهۆڕینا واتایێ‌. دو پیتێن ڕەسەنێن زمانێ‌ كوردی نینن و ب ئەلوفۆنێن هەڤ هاتینە دانان. ڕێنڤیسا زمانێ‌ كوردی پێدڤی ب بزروكێ‌ هەیە، كو هێمایەك بۆ بهێتە دانان، چونكی برگا زمانێ‌ كوردی بێ‌ ڤاول دروست نابیت، هەروەسا گوهۆڕینا ئەوێ‌ ب پیتەكا دیتر دبیتە ئەگەرێ‌ گوهۆڕینا واتایێ‌، هەروەسا دشێین هەر پەیڤەكا تێدا بێ ئاریشە ب ئێك یێ بنڤیسین، چونكی چ گوهۆرینەكا واتایی روینادەت.

Alberto Ciaffaglione, Carlos Olarte

Logical frameworks and meta-languages form a common substrate for representing, implementing and reasoning about a wide variety of deductive systems of interest in logic and computer science. Their design, implementation and their use in reasoning tasks, ranging from the correctness of software to the properties of formal systems, have been the focus of considerable research over the last two decades. This workshop brings together designers, implementors and practitioners to discuss various aspects impinging on the structure and utility of logical frameworks, including the treatment of variable binding, inductive and co-inductive reasoning techniques and the expressiveness and lucidity of the reasoning process.

Giuseppe Castagna, Mickaël Laurent, Kim Nguyen

We present a type system that combines, in a controlled way, first-order polymorphism with intersectiontypes, union types, and subtyping, and prove its safety. We then define a type reconstruction algorithm that issound and terminating. This yields a system in which unannotated functions are given polymorphic types(thanks to Hindley-Milner) that can express the overloaded behavior of the functions they type (thanks tothe intersection introduction rule) and that are deduced by applying advanced techniques of type narrowing(thanks to the union elimination rule). This makes the system a prime candidate to type dynamic languages.

Shreekanth M Prabhu, Abhisek Midya

The study of spoken languages comprises phonology, morphology, and grammar. The languages can be classified as root languages, inflectional languages, and stem languages. In addition, languages continually change over time and space by picking isoglosses, as speakers move from region to/through region. All these factors lead to the formation of vocabulary, which has commonality/similarity across languages as well as distinct and subtle differences among them. Comparison of vocabularies across languages and detailed analysis has led to the hypothesis of language families. In particular, in the view of Western linguists, Vedic Sanskrit is a daughter language, part of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European Language family, and Dravidian Languages belong to an entirely different family. These and such conclusions are reexamined in this paper. Based on our study and analysis, we propose an Ecosystem Model for Linguistic Development with Sanskrit at the core, in place of the widely accepted family tree model. To that end, we leverage the Paninian system of sounds to construct a phonetic map. Then we represent words across languages as state transitions on the phonetic map and construct corresponding Morphological Finite Automata (MFA) that accept groups of words. Regardless of whether the contribution of this paper is significant or minor, it is an important step in challenging policy-driven research that has plagued this field.

Fazlollah Rezaeiardani, Mahdi Sadeghi

In the present study, with the aim of investigating the personality of Ashurai poems, the character traits in this type of poetry have been investigated using a descriptive-analytical method. The ritual poet describes the character of this incident with the help of components such as praise of great men, the revival of Ashura culture, and identification. The behavior and morals of the characters are based on Ashurai poems and they perform appropriate actions in different situations, as they have a convincing reason for any change in their behavior and show a logical reaction when dealing with incidents. In this type of poem, the characters of the story are not created by the poet, but what is depicted is considered in the fictional world of the poem and the outside world of the poem and in the context of the events. The expression of Ashurai characters, sometimes with interpretation and sometimes without interpretation, makes the reader familiar with the nature of the character. This is where the reflection of the inner characteristics of the Ashurai character draws the fluid flow of the mind to Ashura culture. IntroductionThe character is the central factor around which the whole story revolves. Other factors get their objectivity, perfection, meaning, and concept and even the reason for their existence from the personality factor. Religious figures have red lines approaching them is not for everyone. In fact, the character is the industry that gives soul and life to the story and the reader demands it. The main character of the ritual poem opens the knots and becomes the main character of the narrative and the center of the power of the audience. Secondary characters in Ashurai poems are attracted to the main characters and accept their ideals.  Materials and MethodsIn the present descriptive-analytical study, the personality analysis of Ashura poems has been carried out with a case study of the poems of Yazd religious poets in the post-revolutionary period using the survey and library approach.  Research FindingsThe Ashurai poet does not seek the idealism and mythologizing of the Ashurai character in ritual poetry, but the idealistic character himself. With this initiative, he revives the broken relationship between the individual and the community, and finally implements the social construction with a symbolic order. The revival of Ashura culture, identification, formation of collective identity, anthropology, etc. are the most important basis for the creation of Ashurai characters; therefore, the main characters of Ashurai poetry find a social face. In other words, the characters of Ashurai poetry are dynamic and all-around characters that cause the dynamism and mobility of the society, and there is no trace of any "standard" or "static" character in these poems. The Ashurai poet recreates the characters of Karbala by looking at the culture of Ashura, the people of the society, and the real characters, together with the tools of his imagination and artistic talent. He puts all the elements of the speech in direct relation to the action and reaction of the character in order to objectify his thoughts and emotions with this method and to train "individual" and "type" characters with his Ashurai speech.  Discussion of Results and ConclusionsThe expression of Ashura characters, sometimes with interpretation and sometimes without interpretation, makes the reader familiar with the nature of the character. This is where the reflection of the inner characteristics of the Ashura personality draws the fluid flow of the mind to the Ashura culture. The Ashurai poet recreates Ashurai’s personality by looking at Ashura and conscious or unconscious discourses. The characterization of religious and Ashura poems has differences from the characterization of other poems. The difference between Ashurai characters and myths is that the characters of Ashurai poetry are reasonable and acceptable, which is considered one of the strengths of this type of poetry.The main criterion of being a character is his determining role in the plot of words and stories. It may be that during the events, depending on the circumstances of the event, the words, actions, and behavior of the dynamic characters in Ashurai poems cannot be predicted, but these changes work together with a pattern of behavior and this factor itself is proof of human dynamism. The character in these poems is alive, and the Ashurai poet, unlike Ferdowsi, does not try to create a superhuman or holy character. This is not a sign of the poet's lack of artistic or visual talent in creating a character, but rather, he narrates the real self of the character. The formation of events and moving forward are other characteristics that can be seen in the characters of this type of poetry. The poet establishes a coherent relationship between the characters. In other words, the poet, with his special intelligence and elegance, recounts the prevailing thoughts and opinions of the society through the use of various elements such as action, dialogue, environment, space, etc. It should be noted that in Ashurai poetry, all the verses are written for a character from Ahl al-Bayt.

Sohail Mumtaz Khan

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-language: ER;">In this Article, an effort was made to get a good understanding about Schimmel&rsquo;s books, in the very context of Metaphysics, Mysticism, Culture, History and of Fine Arts. Much of these books are byproduct of Schimmel&rsquo;s lectures which she gave in different universities and in institutions, world over. She was a dedicated Western Scholar and had an extended repute both in East and West. Her books are profoundly contained diversified or versatile topics related to Muslim living, irrespective of Muslim sect or dogmatic differences. She presented Islam a true faith and gave an impressive look of it to its western readers. For this, she particularly focused Mysticism and Fine Arts. In fact, she produced a great canvass of Islam and did her best to draw a good look of it in different socio-cultural perspectives. Her academic attire for the Prophet of Islam (pbuh) is another distinction to be valued. We should admit that this was Muslim Mysticism which engraved her ideas from childhood to her old age and she led a life, more or less, under the very shadow of Sufi Path.</span></strong></p>

حمیدرضا محبوبی آرانی

فلسفه‌ی یونان باستان کتابی است نگاشته شده برای دانشجویان فلسفه در آمریکا در دوره‌ی کارشناسی. تلاش نویسنده در این کتاب نسبتاً مختصر آن است که نشان دهد فلسفه‌ی یونان باستان عبارت از تاریخ آرای پراکنده و متشتت فیلسوفان گوناگون نیست و می‌توان خط یا خط‌های فکری انسجام‌بخشی را پیدا کرد که در کل این دوران امتداد پیدا می‌کند. بر اساس این خط‌های فکری می‌توان روایتی یکپارچه از کل فلسفه‌ی این دوره را به دست داد. نویسنده به طور خاص این خط فکری را در تلاش فیلسوفان این دوران برای رسیدن به شناخت حقیقی و زندگی خوب و سعادتمند دنبال می‌کند که از سقراط می‌گذرد و در افلاطون و ارسطو ادامه پیدا می‌کند. مقاله‌ی کنونی پس از معرفی اثر و گزارشی مختصر از محتوای استدلالی آن، در نهایت به نقد و بررسی این کتاب بر اساس اهداف و رویکردهای مؤلفش می‌پردازد و جایگاه آن را در درس‌های مربوط به فلسفه‌ی یونان باستان روشن می‌سازد.

Imran Ali, Muhammad Ijaz Tabassum

<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: &quot;Calibri&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The Oriental College is first educational institution of Governemnt of Punjab, where Oriental Languages are taught. Oriental College was established in 1870, basically this Institution was established to acquaint the people with modern field of knowledge in Oriental Languages. At that time Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi (Grumukhi) and Peshto, including modern subjects of knowledge, like Engineering, Mathematic, Geography, Economic, Philosophy, Muslim Law, Dharam Shaster, Medicine, Economic, Tibb Unani, Vedak and History were taught in this College.&nbsp;</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: &quot;Calibri&quot;,&quot;sans-serif&quot;; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">M.A. classes were started at Oriental College beginning with Arabic, M.A. Sanskrit 1888, Persian 1921, Urdu 1948, Punjabi 1970 and Kashmir Studies 1987.</span>

Luiz G. Véras, Anna K. F. Gomes, Guilherme A. R. Dominguez et al.

Countless traffic accidents often occur because of the inattention of the drivers. Many factors can contribute to distractions while driving, since objects or events to physiological conditions, as drowsiness and fatigue, do not allow the driver to stay attentive. The technological progress allowed the development and application of many solutions to detect the attention in real situations, promoting the interest of the scientific community in these last years. Commonly, these solutions identify the lack of attention and alert the driver, in order to help her/him to recover the attention, avoiding serious accidents and preserving lives. Our work presents a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) of the methods and criteria used to detect attention of drivers at the wheel, focusing on those methods based on images. As results, 50 studies were selected from the literature on drivers' attention detection, in which 22 contain solutions in the desired context. The results of SLR can be used as a resource in the preparation of new research projects in drivers' attention detection.

Past studies have investigated metaphoric correlations between time and space or objects from cognitive semantic perspective in different anguages, drawing interesting similarities and cultural differences in the conceptualization of time. This paper departs from the existing literature by examining the concept of time in Pashto language from a cognitive semantic perspective based on the theoretical model of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (hereafter CMT) to find out various conceptual etaphors (hereafter CM) for time in Pashto language and poetry. Linguistic data of 150 sentences and clauses were extracted from the Pashto-English dictionary (Zeeya, 2009), Da Ghani Kulyat (Ghani 1985), Dewan Abdur Rahman Baba (Rahman, 1947), Tsraagh (Saqib, 2019) and everyday language on the basis of topical words and phrases conveying the concept of time. The topical words and phrases technique was used to retrieve the clauses or sentences denoting the concept/theme of time. CMT was used to analyze the clauses and sentences to investigate the source domains which structure the abstract concept of time in Pashto. Eight metaphors for the representation of time emerge from the analysis: i) time is object in motion; ii) time is a thing; iii) time is bounded space; iv) moments of time are landmarks in space and past is in the front, while future is at the back; v) time is person; vi) Time is measurable quantity; vii) time is a valuable commodity; and viii) time passing is tasting it. Contrary to English, Pashto speakers locate past time in the front while locating the future at the back. The present paper recommends further studies in Pashto language from cognitive semantic perspective to examine the tenets of CMT in Indo-Iranian languages to investigate its cross-cultural implications.

Yousef Nikrouz

Literary critics have different views about personification as a literary device. Some have considered personification as a sub-branch of the makniye (implicit) metaphor, defining it as attributing human traits and emotions to objects, natural phenomena, and concepts. That is to say, using imagination, the poet describes those things as human beings. In this definition, the mind and imaginative power of the poet in exploring the similarities of those objects and personifying them are of great importance.Some have regarded it as a category of ontological metaphors and imaginal deviation, in which the poet conceives identification of two independent and separate things and thereby ascribes human activities, emotions, and thoughts to them. In fact, through personification, various entities, having never been compared up to now, are juxtaposed to cause artistic effects.Other critics believe in the principle of animism and suggestive appearance. They maintain that there are two mental approaches to animism: the "mythological" approach and the "psychological" approach. In the mythological approach, animism is a part of mythology. That is, having childlike fanciful mental activities, primitive simple-minded man believes everything in nature has a living soul or soulmate. Psychologically speaking, animism is a kind of return to childhood.  The child's view of the world as an animate thing is one of the fundamental questions in psychology which was set forth both in Piaget’s theory of animism and Werner’s theory of physiognomic perception.Accordingly, some modern semiologists like Derrida, Levi Strauss, and Lacan believe that trope, metaphor (personification), majaz-e morsal (synecdoche), and irony belong to the realm of semiotics. They maintain that rhetorical techniques are not merely ornamental materials of style but they are, in the general sense of the word, structural components of discourse. In other words, treating metaphor as a meaning-generating factor, without reference to intertextual relations and structural layers of the text is impossible. What is important in the latter definition is that metaphor is a literary device whose meaning depends on the context in which it is utilized. To put it simply, a separate combination of words may be perceived as a makniye (implicit) metaphor, whereas it could be something quite different in the context. The same is true of personification.According to what is said and based on literary animism and suggestive appearance (third view), context, and structural layers of the text (fourth view), the writer believes that objects and phenomena, like humans, are animate and have their own feelings and emotions. This idea has been widely reflected in the Qur’an, hadiths, and literary works. On the other hand, context and structural layers of the text are good criteria that play an important role in recognizing personification. More precisely, it is from context and overall intertextual relations of the text that one can differentiate between personification and other similar literary devices.

Jacek Woźniak

Indira Parthasarathy is the author of many works that touch upon historical issues but are in fact reflections on contemporary India. Although the narrative of some of them takes place in the past, they cannot be called historical literature. While the author is not really interested in describing the past per se, as is also often the case with other contemporary Tamil writers, clear references to the past and history help him showcase contemporary issues, current problems, and life as it is here and now. The article briefly discusses two plays, whose protagonists are historical figures; a novel based on a contemporary event that has become an integral part of the history of Tamil Nadu; and two other works which came to be written on the basis of writer’s own life experience in Poland and are in a way related to the history of that country.