The expansion of the Universe is the basis of modern cosmology. This chapter outlines the theory behind the expansion of the universe, including the cosmological principle, distances, velocities, and accelerations. We provide basic derivations of the key equations and highlight some interesting features, such as superluminal expansion, how pressure increases gravitational attraction, the subtleties of conservation of energy in the expanding universe, and the existence of cosmological horizons.
We present Pangram Text, a transformer-based neural network trained to distinguish text written by large language models from text written by humans. Pangram Text outperforms zero-shot methods such as DetectGPT as well as leading commercial AI detection tools with over 38 times lower error rates on a comprehensive benchmark comprised of 10 text domains (student writing, creative writing, scientific writing, books, encyclopedias, news, email, scientific papers, short-form Q&A) and 8 open- and closed-source large language models. We propose a training algorithm, hard negative mining with synthetic mirrors, that enables our classifier to achieve orders of magnitude lower false positive rates on high-data domains such as reviews. Finally, we show that Pangram Text is not biased against nonnative English speakers and generalizes to domains and models unseen during training.
We give an overview of differential cohomology from the point of view of algebraic topology. This includes a survey of several different definitions of differential cohomology groups, a discussion of differential characteristic classes, an introduction to differential generalized cohomology theory, and some applications in physics.
In this paper we present the multilingual language model BLOOM-zh that features enhanced support for Traditional Chinese. BLOOM-zh has its origins in the open-source BLOOM models presented by BigScience in 2022. Starting from released models, we extended the pre-training of BLOOM by additional 7.4 billion tokens in Traditional Chinese and English covering a variety of domains such as news articles, books, encyclopedias, educational materials as well as spoken language. In order to show the properties of BLOOM-zh, both existing and newly created benchmark scenarios are used for evaluating the performance. BLOOM-zh outperforms its predecessor on most Traditional Chinese benchmarks while maintaining its English capability. We release all our models to the research community.
Arash Ghafouri, Hasan Naderi, Mohammad Aghajani asl
et al.
Nowadays, one of the main challenges for Question Answering Systems is to answer complex questions using various sources of information. Multi-hop questions are a type of complex questions that require multi-step reasoning to answer. In this article, the IslamicPCQA dataset is introduced. This is the first Persian dataset for answering complex questions based on non-structured information sources and consists of 12,282 question-answer pairs extracted from 9 Islamic encyclopedias. This dataset has been created inspired by the HotpotQA English dataset approach, which was customized to suit the complexities of the Persian language. Answering questions in this dataset requires more than one paragraph and reasoning. The questions are not limited to any prior knowledge base or ontology, and to provide robust reasoning ability, the dataset also includes supporting facts and key sentences. The prepared dataset covers a wide range of Islamic topics and aims to facilitate answering complex Persian questions within this subject matter
As the Iranian printing industry entered its modern era in the 1950s, manuals of style began to flourish with sets of writing and editing guidelines for correct punctuation and text formatting. Over time, the writing symbols have increased in number, and manual organizers have tried to make their guidelines inclusive by proposing new rules and usages for the symbols. Nowadays, a great number of such manuals are publicly accessible, but there is hardly any novelty or difference from the past in them. Besides, no attempts have been made to accurately evaluate or criticize the proposed orthographic signs and symbols and the tips on how to use them. To fill the gap, the present study examines eighteen commonly used writing style manuals through a descriptive-analytical method. The aim is to shed light on the contradictions within the individual manuals and among them, the differences in the authors’ views, and the excess and defect in their approaches. This is a just and fair task of evaluation done with a bulk of examples as proofs and evidence. Each section of the research ends up with some suggestions about how to revise the set-up of guides and manuals on writing so as to reduce the inconsistencies and eliminate the textual inexpressiveness that stems from the wrong use of punctuation marks. The number of such marks presented in this study is kept as low as possible because too many suggestions would make it hard for editors and users to discreetly select and apply the intended marks.IntroductionCoinciding with the birth of the publication industry, more precisely in the wake of 1330 AH, manuscript editions using mechanics of writing, more particularly punctuation marks, increased significantly prior to publication at academic centers and publishing industries. The importance of this issue inspired many editors and authors to compile manuals and dedicate a section in books with the general title of mechanics of writing to explicate the use of punctuation marks. Considering existing multifarious and diverse manuals, and the paucity of studies on such writings (more significantly, the punctuation marks), the present study aims to analyze the aforementioned texts and uses of punctuation marks to highlight obscurities and provide a review and critical study of opposing views, in the hope of improving text consistency. Materials and Methods Taking an analytical and critical method, the present study reviews 18 conventional manuals which have examined punctuation marks. It also evaluates the internal contradictions, and variety of views, and then moderately touches on excessive adherence to rules, with all examples and evidence in their texts. The concluding section provides suggestions on differences that would likely foreground revision of given manuals and eliminate dispersed editing methods and the conceptual incompetency caused by inappropriate uses of punctuation marks. Research FindingsThere were varied opinions on using the question mark in several specific cases, and several punctuation marks for a particular purpose, such as 1) Interrogative sentences inferring a rhetorical question, 2) Interrogative sentences used for inquiries or polite requests, 3) Recurring use of question marks, and 4) Question marks inserted in brackets. The following presents the frequent uses of question marks: 1) closing direct question sentences, and 2) adding in parentheses to shed doubt on the author’s intention or ambiguity of the text and in hooks to highlight the author’s sense of doubt or cited texts.Exclamations were also treated differently; either following 1) an exclamatory sentence, 2) sounds, 3) within the parentheses, and 4) coupled with a question mark. There are different views, which are subject to criticism, on using periods that may appear either in imperative sentences or conventional abbreviations. In this sense, there are several possible uses to consider a period: 1) at the end of declarative and imperative sentences, 2) short answers, 3) abbreviations, 4) indirect questions, 5) at the end of citations within the text or at the end of the text, 6) separating parts of web addresses, 7) at the end of a direct quotation, and 8) following quotation marks.There are diverse views and ambiguities concerning the use of semicolons such as 1) followed by parallel pairs separated by ‘and’ (wa), 2) conjunctions such as because (zirā), or however (ammā), 3) separating options (when each of the options are separated by a semicolon and the final point takes a period). It can be thus regarded that semicolons are followed by linking words such as because (zirā), however (ammā), but (walī), therefore (banābarīn), while (dar ḥālī kih), hence (dar natījah), for instance (barāy-i mithāl), meaning (ya’nī), in this sense (az īn rūy), in a way that (bi ṭūrī kih), within the separate components of a general category (while each segment is separated by a semicolon and the final point ends with a period), in-text citations to two or more sources, within conditional sentences or sentences consisting multiple commas, within seemingly independent sentences that are semantically interrelated.Exploring how manuals refer to the uses of commons, the researchers noticed the specific differences 1) among parallel words, 2) following and followed by the post-positioned particle in Persian rā, 3) following the subject, 4) following short answers, and 5) following that (kih). The study shows that commas are prevalently used 1) following an exclamatory sentence, 2) between the dependent and independent sentences (when the dependent clause precedes the main clause, a comma is used and when the independent clause precedes the dependent clause, a semicolon is applied), 3) among parallels, 4) between the phrase and similar sentences, 5) in either part of an exclamatory sentence, non-restrictive clause, or appositions, 6) between two repeated words, 7) following adverbial clauses at the beginning of the sentence, 8) replaced for nouns and verbs, 9) for clarification, and 10) to separate addresses, sources, numbers, surnames and names, book titles, and author’s names. Discussion of Results and Conclusion The substantial issues observed in consulted manuals include the use of examples rather than evidence, the incongruity between uses and examples to support suggested punctuation marks and their uses, ambiguities or content incompetency in using mechanics and providing an amalgam of rhetorical and grammatical points. Writing mechanics eliminate mistakes ambiguities and improve proper understanding of the text; however, excessive use of punctuation marks which also consists of diverse instances or suggestions, and discourages users to adhere to conventions. It is noteworthy that punctuation marks ought to be applied on the account of textual and contextual perquisites, though there might be exceptions given the rules and conventions of every punctuation mark. To eliminate obfuscations, it is suggested to include an introductory section in glossaries and encyclopedias, indicating compilers’ preferences for applied punctuation marks. It is also recommended to consider the denotative aspect of punctuation marks in particular sciences, as some marks convey a significant meaning in specific areas of knowledge.
Language and Literature, Indo-Iranian languages and literature
Chengxing Wang, Chengxing Wang, Zhenyu Zhao
et al.
CUL7, a gene composed of 26 exons associated with cullin 7 protein, is also an E3 ligase that is closely related to cell senescence, apoptosis, and cell transformation and also plays an important role in human cancer. However, there is no systematic pan-cancer analysis has been performed to explore its role in prognosis and immune prediction. In this study, the expression of CUL7 in colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) was investigated to determine its prognosis value. First, based on the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Genotypic-Tissue Expression Project(GTEx), Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedias(CCLE), and TISIDB database, the potential role of CUL7 in different tumors was explored. Subsequently, the expression of CUL7 in COAD was explored and verified by Immunohistochemistry (IHC). Furthermore, the mutation frequency of CUL7 in COAD was analyzed, and the prognostic value of CUL7 in COAD was discussed. In addition, the nomogram was constructed, and its prognostic value was verified by follow-up data from Jiangmen Central Hospital. Finally, PPI network analysis explored the potential biological function of CUL7 in COAD. The results show that CUL7 is upregulated in most tumors, which is significantly associated with poor survival. At the same time, CUL7 is correlated with the clinical stage and immune landscape of various tumors. In colorectal cancer, CUL7 was overexpressed in tumor tissues by IHC with a mutation frequency of about 4%. CUL7 is an independent prognostic factor for colorectal cancer. The nomogram constructed has effective predictive performance, and external databases proved the prognostic value of CUL7. In addition, PPI network analysis showed that CUL7 was closely related to FBXW8, and further pathway enrichment analysis showed that CUL7 was mainly involved in ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. Therefore, our study provides a comprehensive understanding of the potential role of CUL7 in different tumors, and CUL7 might be a prognostic marker for COAD.
Bahr al-javāher is a Persian and Arabic dictionary with 5926 headwords in conventional medical science, compiled by Mohammad ibn Yousof Heravi. Observing the range and variety of the explicit content of Bahr al-javāher, we can consider it one of the first encyclopedias in the field. With its significant features, this book has been a reliable source for authors and researchers, but no revised edition of it is available. Therefore, its lexical and content features have been neglected, among which are: validating the definitions by referring to dozens of authoritative medical and, in some cases, non-medical sources; mentioning the opinions of doctors, scholars, and sages with a critical approach; referring to Arabic and Persian dictionaries, hadiths, and proverbs; applying Heravi dialect vocabulary; using rare Persian equivalents, novel combinations, Arabic forms, and infrequent simple and compound verbs. This article examines the content and lexical features of the Persian section of this work as an ancient Persian scientific text from the 10th century AH, and provides new points about its unidentified aspects.
AbstractFor a long time, histories of the rise of the modern encyclopedia were mainly histories of publications: chronologies of large-scale, alphabetically organized reference works, successfully completed in one country after another, from the late 1600s onwards. Since none of the Scandinavian countries managed to publish general encyclopedias in the eighteenth century, researchers assumed that encyclopedic practice “reached” the northern periphery at a later date. However, the geographical expansion of a literary practice and the history of its most successful, printed outcomes do not necessarily share the same milestones. In this chapter, Linn Holmberg explores a number of stranded encyclopedias in eighteenth-century Sweden, detected partly through the periodical press, partly through archival research. The first part examines glimpses of encyclopedic projects seen through the journal Lärda tidningar (1745–1773). The second part reconstructs the encyclopedic efforts of two officials of the Swedish Bureau of Mines, who worked on an encyclopedia of mining and metallurgy for almost forty years (c. 1743–1787). By examining the motivations and circumstances underpinning the initiation, abandonment, and transformations of these projects, the study aspires to produce new insights into the early formation of alphabetical encyclopedic practice in eighteenth-century Sweden.
In recent decades, the rapid growth of Internet adoption is offering opportunities for convenient and inexpensive access to scientific information. Wikipedia, one of the largest encyclopedias worldwide, has become a reference in this respect, and has attracted widespread attention from scholars. However, a clear understanding of the scientific sources underpinning Wikipedia's contents remains elusive. In this work, we rely on an open dataset of citations from Wikipedia to map the relationship between Wikipedia articles and scientific journal articles. We find that most journal articles cited from Wikipedia belong to STEM fields, in particular biology and medicine ($47.6$\% of citations; $46.1$\% of cited articles). Furthermore, Wikipedia's biographies play an important role in connecting STEM fields with the humanities, especially history. These results contribute to our understanding of Wikipedia's reliance on scientific sources, and its role as knowledge broker to the public.
Wikipedia, a paradigmatic example of online knowledge space is organized in a collaborative, bottom-up way with voluntary contributions, yet it maintains a level of reliability comparable to that of traditional encyclopedias. The lack of selected professional writers and editors makes the judgement about quality and trustworthiness of the articles a real challenge. Here we show that a self-consistent metrics for the network defined by the edit records captures well the character of editors' activity and the articles' level of complexity. Using our metrics, one can better identify the human-labeled high-quality articles, e.g., "featured" ones, and differentiate them from the popular and controversial articles. Furthermore, the dynamics of the editor-article system is also well captured by the metrics, revealing the evolutionary pathways of articles and diverse roles of editors. We demonstrate that the collective effort of the editors indeed drives to the direction of article improvement.
Reference texts such as encyclopedias and news articles can manifest biased language when objective reporting is substituted by subjective writing. Existing methods to detect bias mostly rely on annotated data to train machine learning models. However, low annotator agreement and comparability is a substantial drawback in available media bias corpora. To evaluate data collection options, we collect and compare labels obtained from two popular crowdsourcing platforms. Our results demonstrate the existing crowdsourcing approaches' lack of data quality, underlining the need for a trained expert framework to gather a more reliable dataset. By creating such a framework and gathering a first dataset, we are able to improve Krippendorff's $α$ = 0.144 (crowdsourcing labels) to $α$ = 0.419 (expert labels). We conclude that detailed annotator training increases data quality, improving the performance of existing bias detection systems. We will continue to extend our dataset in the future.
Among traditional Croatian regions Turopolje is one of the smallest, but also one with a widely recognizable name and distinctive characteristics. Between 2018 and 2021, The Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography compiled the edition devoted exclusively to the Turopolje region. One of the basic conceptional issues for its editors was to determine the area of the region and consequently define the area which is to be embraced by the research. This article reviews different territorial definitions of Turopolje as well as changes in administrative-territorial divisions during last century and a half, which preceeded actual situation. Taking into account that encyclopedias generally tend to apply a holistic approach, the editors decided to include present-day administrative units the township of Velika Gorica, communes of Kravarsko, Orle and Pokupsko, as well as parts (particular settlements) of the township of Zagreb and the commune of Lekenik.
The paper traces the development of digital encyclopedias through four main stages: 1. The age of the first text-based online services; 2. the age of multimedia CD-ROMs, mainly based on the idea of an offline multimedia encyclopedia; 3. the first generation of web encyclopedias, when the web version initially supplemented and then thoroughly replaced CD-ROMs; 4. the age of data oriented, semantic-aware encyclopedias. This chronological framework is used to discuss how different models of encyclopedias and encyclopedism – including the Wikipedia model – have been intertwined with technological developments on the one side, and with the cultural debate on the new digital ecosystem (and on its role for the publishing industry) on the other.
Bibliography. Library science. Information resources
The usage of national cultural peculiarities for university students, i.e. the native language (Russian and Tatar) folklore in teaching a foreign language at Kazan Federal University is considered. The research aimed to study the pedagogical potential of folklore of the native language in the training of future primary school teachers. The students of the 5th year of the Institute of Psychology and Education took part in the experiment. The work lasted for one year. The authors held the English language classes where they used the genres of the folklore (Russian and Tatar) for different educational purposes. The results of the study were the creation of some interesting exercises which helped students master their communicative skills, improve their pronunciation, grammar, and expand their vocabulary. The future primary school teachers actively participated in the research and creation of the exercises. Students were involved into the atmosphere of studying history and culture of the country they live in by reading, retelling, and analyzing fairy tales, myths, legends, baits. Translating folklore genres from their native language into a foreign one, students developed and improved their vocabulary, communication, and translation skills. According to the experience the future primary school teachers worked hard in self-development, they tried to find and use additional sources: dictionaries, literature, textbooks, encyclopedias and publications.
Speaking skill is one of the most important skills to acquire foreign or second language learning. This research aimed to describe the concept of speaking skills, the implementation of the jigsaw learning model in teaching speaking, the advantage and disadvantages of the jigsaw learning model, and the strategies to implement the jigsaw learning model in speaking class. The type of this research is descriptive qualitative. It used library research to collect the data. The approach was taken by examining some library materials, publications of research results, and opinions of world leaders, who studied the use of the jigsaw learning model in teaching speaking. Data is in the form of books, journals, encyclopedias, magazines, papers, and articles. The Internet site access method (Website) is applied by browsing websites/sites that provide various data and information related to research, various theories, and practices that the author was researching. The collected data was then checked for correctness, suitability, and reliability through content analysis, then described, and interpreted to conclude. The results of the study showed that the use of the jigsaw learning model was very useful and can improve students' speaking skills. The students become more active in the learning process and have good interaction and communication with other students in the class.