Hasil untuk "Commercial law"

Benyu Zhang, Qiang Zhang, Jianpeng Cheng et al.

Large Language Models (LLMs) represent a promising frontier for recommender systems, yet their development has been impeded by the absence of predictable scaling laws, which are crucial for guiding research and optimizing resource allocation. We hypothesize that this may be attributed to the inherent noise, bias, and incompleteness of raw user interaction data in prior continual pre-training (CPT) efforts. This paper introduces a novel, layered framework for generating high-quality synthetic data that circumvents such issues by creating a curated, pedagogical curriculum for the LLM. We provide powerful, direct evidence for the utility of our curriculum by showing that standard sequential models trained on our principled synthetic data significantly outperform ($+130\%$ on recall@100 for SasRec) models trained on real data in downstream ranking tasks, demonstrating its superiority for learning generalizable user preference patterns. Building on this, we empirically demonstrate, for the first time, robust power-law scaling for an LLM that is continually pre-trained on our high-quality, recommendation-specific data. Our experiments reveal consistent and predictable perplexity reduction across multiple synthetic data modalities. These findings establish a foundational methodology for reliable scaling LLM capabilities in the recommendation domain, thereby shifting the research focus from mitigating data deficiencies to leveraging high-quality, structured information.

Runhua Wang, Jyh-An Lee, Jingwen Liu

Amid the surge of intellectual property (IP) disputes surrounding non-fungible tokens (NFTs), some scholars have advocated for the application of personal property or sales law to regulate NFT minting and transactions, contending that IP laws unduly hinder the development of the NFT market. This Article counters these proposals and argues that the existing IP system stands as the most suitable regulatory framework for governing the evolving NFT market. Compared to personal property or sales law, IP laws can more effectively address challenges such as tragedies of the commons and anticommons in the NFT market. NFT communities have also developed their own norms and licensing agreements upon existing IP laws to regulate shared resources. Moreover, the IP regimes, with both static and dynamic institutional designs, can effectively balance various policy concerns, such as innovation, fair competition, and consumer protection, which alternative proposals struggle to provide.

Leonardo Iurada, Simone Bombari, Tatiana Tommasi et al.

Large-scale deep learning models are known to memorize parts of the training set. In machine learning theory, memorization is often framed as interpolation or label fitting, and classical results show that this can be achieved when the number of parameters $p$ in the model is larger than the number of training samples $n$. In this work, we consider memorization from the perspective of data reconstruction, demonstrating that this can be achieved when $p$ is larger than $dn$, where $d$ is the dimensionality of the data. More specifically, we show that, in the random features model, when $p \gg dn$, the subspace spanned by the training samples in feature space gives sufficient information to identify the individual samples in input space. Our analysis suggests an optimization method to reconstruct the dataset from the model parameters, and we demonstrate that this method performs well on various architectures (random features, two-layer fully-connected and deep residual networks). Our results reveal a law of data reconstruction, according to which the entire training dataset can be recovered as $p$ exceeds the threshold $dn$.

Kamran Behnia, Shiyan Li, Johnpierre Paglione et al.

Recently, Wang et al. [1] reported on an unusual violation of Wiedemann-Franz law in three semimetals. We compare their observations to our observations in a variety of systems, where the apparent WF law violations in the same temperature range arise as a consequence of electron-phonon decoupling. Given the empirical similarity of their data with these cases, the most plausible explanation for the reported violation is an experimental artefact.

Aniket Kesari, Travis Breaux, Tom Norton et al.

Privacy law and regulation have turned to "consent" as the legitimate basis for collecting and processing individuals' data. As governments have rushed to enshrine consent requirements in their privacy laws, such as the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA), significant challenges remain in understanding how these legal mandates are operationalized in software. The opaque nature of software development processes further complicates this translation. To address this, we explore the use of Large Language Models (LLMs) in requirements engineering to bridge the gap between legal requirements and technical implementation. This study employs a three-step pipeline that involves using an LLM to classify software use cases for compliance, generating LLM modifications for non-compliant cases, and manually validating these changes against legal standards. Our preliminary findings highlight the potential of LLMs in automating compliance tasks, while also revealing limitations in their reasoning capabilities. By benchmarking LLMs against real-world use cases, this research provides insights into leveraging AI-driven solutions to enhance legal compliance of software.

Frederik Zuiderveen Borgesius

Our society can benefit immensely from algorithmic decision-making and similar types of artificial intelligence. But algorithmic decision-making can also have discriminatory effects. This paper examines that problem, using online price differentiation as an example of algorithmic decision-making. With online price differentiation, a company charges different people different prices for identical products, based on information the company has about those people. The main question in this paper is: to what extent can non-discrimination law protect people against online price differentiation? The paper shows that online price differentiation and algorithmic decision-making could lead to indirect discrimination, for instance harming people with a certain ethnicity. Indirect discrimination occurs when a practice is neutral at first glance, but ends up discriminating against people with a protected characteristic, such as ethnicity. In principle, non-discrimination law prohibits indirect discrimination. The paper also shows, however, that non-discrimination law has flaws when applied to algorithmic decision-making. For instance, algorithmic discrimination can remain hidden: people may not realise that they are being discriminated against. And many types of unfair - some might say discriminatory - algorithmic decisions are outside the scope of current non-discrimination law.

Qingqing HUANG

Civil Code of the People's Republic of China stipulates that when a patient "cannot or should not" be informed of their medical condition, such information should instead be disclosed to close relatives. But in practice, the surrogate exercise of cancer patients' right to informed consent by family members has shown signs of expansion and abuse, seriously infringing upon patients' personal rights and dignity. There is a pressing need to regulate the legal interpretation of the "cannot or should not" clause through legislation, judicial interpretations, and guiding case law. The scope of protective medical measures must be narrowly defined, and medical institutions should be granted limited discretionary authority when fulfilling their duty of disclosure. Additionally, a statutory procedure or third-party evaluation mechanism should be established to assess a patient's capacity for medical decision-making. These measures would reduce the legal risk of subrogation of informed consent and better safeguard the rights and interests of patients.

Wenjia Jing, Jack Xin, Yifeng Yu

Using formal renormalization theory, Yakhot derived in ([32], 1988) an $O\left(\frac{A}{\sqrt{\log A}}\right)$ growth law of the turbulent flame speed with respect to large flow intensity $A$ based on the inviscid G-equation. Although this growth law is widely cited in combustion literature, there has been no rigorous mathematical discussion to date about its validity. As a first step towards unveiling the mystery, we prove that there is no intermediate growth law between $O\left(\frac{A}{\log A}\right)$ and $O(A)$ for two dimensional incompressible Lipschitz continuous periodic flows with bounded swirl sizes. In particular, we do not assume the non-degeneracy of critical points. Additionally, other examples of flows with lower regularity, Lagrangian chaos, and related phenomena are also discussed.

Xiaoxi Kang, Lizhen Qu, Lay-Ki Soon et al.

The effectiveness of Large Language Models (LLMs) in legal reasoning is often limited due to the unique legal terminologies and the necessity for highly specialized knowledge. These limitations highlight the need for high-quality data tailored for complex legal reasoning tasks. This paper introduces LegalSemi, a benchmark specifically curated for legal scenario analysis. LegalSemi comprises 54 legal scenarios, each rigorously annotated by legal experts, based on the comprehensive IRAC (Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion) framework from Malaysian Contract Law. In addition, LegalSemi is accompanied by a structured knowledge base (SKE). A series of experiments were conducted to assess the usefulness of LegalSemi for IRAC analysis. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of incorporating the SKE for issue identification, rule retrieval, application and conclusion generation using four different LLMs.

Mario Germán Iguarán Arana

Robert Lee Poe

Employment selection processes that use automated hiring systems based on machine learning are becoming increasingly commonplace. Meanwhile, concerns about algorithmic direct and indirect discrimination that result from such systems are front-and-center, and the technical solutions provided by the research community often systematically deviate from the principle of equal treatment to combat disparate or adverse impacts on groups based on protected attributes. Those technical solutions are now being used in commercially available automated hiring systems, potentially engaging in real-world discrimination. Algorithmic fairness and algorithmic non-discrimination are not the same. This article examines a conflict between the two: whether such hiring systems are compliant with EU non-discrimination law.

Lauren Danielowski

In 2022, the global commercial surrogacy industry was valued at approximately US$14 billion. This paper explores the issue of surrogacy to reveal how international human rights standards and labor laws treat reproduction as work, building on previous scholarship analyzing similar framing at the grassroots level in Mexico. I argue that the failure to recognize surrogacy as labor is rooted in three lacunae: (1) contemporary policies and practices around surrogacy globally pay little attention to the well-being and rights fulfillment of surrogates themselves, particularly the economic rights of surrogates; (2) the stigma of surrogacy as sexualized care work results in neglect of the labor rights of surrogates in mainstream economic rights discourses; and (3) relevant international rights law has not yet addressed the economic rights of surrogates, nor has it effectively articulated the interdependent relationship between economic rights and reproductive rights. Lastly, I discuss where reproductive rights and economic rights overlap in existing human rights conventions and standards and what possibilities these offer for articulating the interdependence of reproductive and economic rights and for advancing the labor rights of surrogates.

Alexander S. Blum, Stefano Furlan

In 1972, at a symposium celebrating the 70th birthday of Paul Dirac, John Wheeler proclaimed that "the framework falls down for everything that one has ever called a law of physics". Responsible for this "breakage [...] among the laws of physics" was the general theory of relativity, more specifically its prediction of massive stars gravitationally collapsing to "black holes", a term Wheeler himself had made popular some years earlier. In our paper, we investigate how Wheeler reached the conclusion that gravitational collapse calls into question the lawfulness of physics and how, subsequently, he tried to develop a new worldview, rethinking in his own way the lessons of quantum mechanics as well as drawing inspiration from other disciplines, not least biology.

Semencha Ilona Ye., Kovalov Mykhailo S.

With the beginning of Russia’s large-scale war against Ukraine on February 24, 2022, Ukraine’s economy suffered shock influences, which on the part of the main public administration bodies caused an urgent need to respond promptly to the sharp changes and dynamics of events that have since unfolded. In addition, it was necessary to understand why and for what reasons the financial-economic system of Ukraine reacted in the way it behaved. Thus, the presented study is aimed at defining and assessing the effectiveness of the implementation of the previous systemic policy along with analyzing the operational actions of the National Bank of Ukraine as the main financial-economic regulator in the conditions of belligerency with regard to the country’s economy. Such an analysis provides an opportunity to further adjust the tactics of managing the financial-economic processes, taking into account the identified shortcomings in the implementation of decisions of previous periods. The research uses a comprehensive approach to macroeconomic analysis, methods of structural analysis and analysis of the dynamics of financial-economic indicators in retrospection. The research is built in two stages. At the first stage, with the help of retrospective financial-economic analysis methods, an assessment of the efficiency of the implementation of the defined Strategy for the development of financial markets in Ukraine for the period from 2016 to 2021 was carried out. At the second stage of the research, the actions of the Central bank were recorded, which led to the stabilization of the macroeconomic crisis in the country, the main directions of operational regulation during martial law in Ukraine were determined, their efficiency was assessed. A retrospective analysis of the actions of the National Bank of Ukraine in 2016-2022 showed that during this period the following important results were achieved in ensuring both financial and price stability, also the stability of the monetary unit: the monetary regime was used quite successfully in conducting inflation targeting, the standards of commercial banks were increased, a program for the accumulation of international reserves was carried out, and the exchange rate was regulated in order to ensure its growing. The assessment of the actions of the National Bank of Ukraine during the period of martial law after February 24, 2022 showed that the following measures of operational regulation were carried out: a number of external and internal incoming and outgoing financial barriers were applied, the accounting rate was regulated, special measures were constantly taken to ensure the financial-economic reserves of the financial system of Ukraine, new mechanisms of financial levers for the credit situation were developed. Further on, it would be advisable to consider the efficiency of regulating the financial-economic situation in a more distant period in order to be able to assess the correctness and fallacy of the decisions taken and adjust the regulator’s actions to maintain a stable state of the economy and further gradually exit from the crisis status. This analysis allows society to apprehend the complexity, consistency of actions of the central economic regulatory bodies, to understand the consequences and expediency of such actions. The presented research is original and comprehensive, touching on all macroeconomic aspects of the activities of the main financial regulator of Ukraine, its influence on the financial-economic situation of the country.

Kelvin Alfarisi Alkap

This study aims to determine and analyze the factors that cause land tenure without rights in Jambi City in the case of the Supreme Court Decision Number 1935 K/Pdt/2013 and the legal consequences of land tenure without rights in Jambi City in the case of the Supreme Court Decision Number 1935 K/Pdt. /2013. The formulation of the problems raised are 1) what are the factors that cause land tenure without rights in Jambi City in the case of the Supreme Court Decision Number 1935 K/Pdt/2013; 2). what are the legal consequences of land tenure without rights in Jambi City in the case of the Supreme Court's Decision Number 1935 K/Pdt/2013. The method used is the type of empirical juridical research. The results of the study show that 1) the factors that can cause land tenure without rights in the case of the Supreme Court Decision Number 1935 K/Pdt/2013 is an error in object. Farida Wan Hamid and the other defendants own the object of the case based on a grant from Defendant II as proof of ownership, namely Certificate of Ownership Number 511 dated July 11, 1972, issued by Defendant III, Jambi City Land Office; 2) land tenure without rights in the case of the Supreme Court's Decision Number 1935 K/Pdt/2013, is classified as an act against the law so that the actions of the party who did it can be filed in a civil lawsuit to ask for a sum of money for compensation. ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuanuntuk mengetahui dan menganalisis faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya penguasaan tanah tanpa hak di Kota Jambi pada kasus Putusan Mahkamah Agung Nomor 1935 K/Pdt/2013 dan akibat hukum penguasaan tanah tanpa hak di Kota Jambi pada kasus Putusan Mahkamah Agung Nomor 1935 K/Pdt/2013.Perumusan masalah yang diangkat yaitu 1) apa saja faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya penguasaan tanah tanpa hak di Kota Jambi pada kasus Putusan Mahkamah Agung Nomor 1935 K/Pdt/2013; 2). bagaimanaakibat hukum penguasaan tanah tanpa hak di Kota Jambi pada kasus Putusan Mahkamah Agung Nomor 1935 K/Pdt/2013. Metode yang digunakan adalah tipe penelitian yuridis empiris. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa 1) faktor yang bisa menyebabkan terjadinya penguasaan tanah tanpa hak pada kasus Putusan Mahkamah Agung Nomor 1935 K/Pdt/2013 adalah keinginan untuk memiliki yang tinggi, disertai dengan adanya niat dan kesempatan untuk menguasai tanah yang jelas bukan miliknya; 2) penguasaan tanah tanpa hak pada kasus Putusan Mahkamah Agung Nomor 1935 K/Pdt/2013, digolongkan sebagai perbuatan melawan hukum sehingga tindakan pihak yang melakukannya dapat dilakukan gugatan secara pidana, pihak keluarga juga dapat mengajukan gugatan secara perdata untuk meminta sejumlah uang ganti rugi.

İbrahim Hakkı

İbrahim Hakkı (Pasha-1863-1918) graduated from Beşiktaş Junior High School, after completing his education in the administrative and higher classes of the Mekteb-i Mülkiye. In addition to his duties at various levels of the state, he taught at Mekteb-i Mülkiye, Mekteb-i Hukuk and Hamidiye Commercial School and wrote books. After he started to give lectures at the School of Law and Hamidiye Commercial School, he started publishing various books, especially on law and history. These works were mostly textbooks. In addition to being a textbook of İbrahim Hakkı Pasha's Legal-ı İdare (2 volumes), Istanbul 1312, it is a comprehensive scientific review. The work is in French style. This work of İbrahim Hakkı Pasha is the first book written in the field of administrative law in our country. The first part of the book consists of six chapters and the second part consists of three chapters. In this translation text, the second part, the third chapter of the book "Hukûk-ı İdâre", the Maarif-i Umumiye part was translated. In this chapter; There are the subjects of İdare-i Maarif, Mekatib-i Sıbyaniye and Rüşdiye, Mekatib-i İdadiye and Sultaniye, Mekatib-i Aliye, Serbesti-i Tedris and Mekatib-i Hususiye. The relevant chapter of the book is about the 1869 Education Regulation and its applications in that period.

Adrian CREŢU

<p>Prezenta publicaţie este consacrată analizei aspectelor cognitive ale noţiunii, relvanţei şi gradului de studiere în literatura de specialitate a leasingului financiar internaţional ca instituţie şi normă juridică, comună mai multor ramuri de drept privat.</p><p>Investigaţia continuă cu analiza reglementărilor legislației naţionale, europene şi internaţionale, a fondului doctrinar şi a practicii judiciare referitoare la instituţia leasingului studiat prin prisma normelor de drept comercial internaţional.</p><p>Se demonstrează apartenenţa <em>instituţiei leasingului financiar internațional</em> la profilul științific <em>drept privat</em>; specia­­litatea 553.06. - <em>drept internaţional şi european privat</em> în cadrul sistemului de drept al Republicii Moldova, precum şi al altor ramuri de drept naţional, dobândind astfel un caracter interdisciplinar. </p><p> </p><p><strong>COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEASING AS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY INSTITUTION OF </strong><strong>INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN PRIVATE LAW</strong></p><p>This publication is devoted to the analysis of the cognitive aspects of the notion, relevance and degree of study in the specialized literature of international financial leasing as an institution and common legal norm of several branches of private law.<strong></strong></p><p>The investigation continues with the analysis of the national, European and international legal regulations the juridical practice and the doctrinal fund regarding the leasing institution studied under the rules of international commercial law.</p><p>It is demonstrated that the international financial leasing institution belongs to the scientific profile: private, specialty 553.06. - <em>International and European Private Law</em> and the legal system of the Republic of Moldova, and other branches of national law, thus gaining an interdisciplinary character.</p>

A. T. Tarlanov, Z. M. Kurbanismailov

The paper shows the approach and the result of taking into account the mutual influence of on-board subsystems of a complex technical object along the DC power supply circuits. Technical objects are understood as a mobile, energy-intensive vehicle, such as an aircraft, a surface or submarine vessel, or a railway locomotive with strong magnetic fields. The aim of the work is to create a simple and intuitive tool for mathematical modeling of the magnetic field vector at an arbitrarily specified observation point. The task is being solved in order to improve the accuracy of magnetic measurements on board, in particular, in navigation problems. On-board DC networks are considered, to which the approach of mathematical modeling is applied. The disadvantages of commercial programs of a similar purpose are noted. The binding of the objects under consideration to the general coordinate system is described. An analytical algorithm for calculating the magnetic field vector from the on-board cable network with a pronounced 3D trajectory is shown. Examples of visualization of the simulation results are given. An algorithm for calculating the induction vector based on the Biot-Savard law is considered. The algorithm for the analytical solution of the problem is described in detail. A specific power cable of the on-board network is considered. The cable is given by a set of straight conductors with current. The ways of future improvement of the created product with the transition from one observation point to the field map in a given three-dimensional zone of arbitrary position, volume and orientation are outlined. The obtained result is considered as an element of the procedure for achieving electromagnetic compatibility of energy-intensive and highly sensitive subsystems of a modern complex technical object.

Mauro Vantaggio

SOMMARIO: 1. Termini d’accertamento tributario e conservazione dei documenti. – 2. I tecnicismi di dettaglio della Cassazione. – 3. L’ultrattività ex art. 22, comma 2, del d.p.r. 29 settembre 1973, n. 600. – 4. La soluzione aziendalistica a portata di mano. – 5. Una valorizzazione dell’inventario ex art. 2214 c.c.

K. F. F. Law, Y. Abe, A. Morace et al.

Magnetic reconnection is a process whereby magnetic field lines in different directions "reconnect" with each other, resulting in the rearrangement of magnetic field topology together with the conversion of magnetic field energy into the kinetic energy (K.E.) of energetic particles. This process occurs in magnetized astronomical plasmas, such as those in the solar corona, Earth's magnetosphere, and active galactic nuclei, and accounts for various phenomena, such as solar flares, energetic particle acceleration, and powering of photon emission. In the present study, we report the experimental demonstration of magnetic reconnection under relativistic electron magnetization situation, along with the observation of power-law distributed outflow in both electron and proton energy spectra. Through irradiation of an intense laser on a "micro-coil", relativistically magnetized plasma was produced and magnetic reconnection was performed with maximum magnetic field 3 kT. In the downstream outflow direction, the non-thermal component is observed in the high-energy part of both electron and proton spectra, with a significantly harder power-law slope of the electron spectrum (p = 1.535 +/- 0.015) that is similar to the electron injection model proposed to explain a hard emission tail of Cygnus X-1, a galactic X-ray source with the same order of magnetization. The obtained result showed experimentally that the magnetization condition in the emitting region of a galactic X-ray source is sufficient to build a hard electron population through magnetic reconnection.