Hasil untuk "Ural-Altaic languages"

Reeli Torn-Leesik, Liina Tammekänd

This exploratory study investigates the use of linking adverbials (LAs) in argumentative English essays written by Estonian school-leavers as part of their state examination in English. Using a sub-corpus of 150 essays from the English State Examination Corpus (ESEC) and comparing it to British students’ A-level1 essays from the Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays (LOCNESS), this paper examines the frequency, variety, and semantic categories of LAs employed by Estonian school-leavers. The results indicate that, compared to native speakers, who demonstrate a more balanced and varied use across semantic categories of LAs, Estonian L1 learners markedly overuse enumeration and addition adverbials (e.g., firstly, secondly, also). The study highlights the tendency of Estonian learners to rely on familiar LAs, often resulting in formulaic and overly structured essays. This overuse may be attributed to teaching practices that emphasise explicit marking of cohesion – or to insufficient instruction in the use of other cohesive devices. *** "Konnektiivlaiendid gümnaasiumilõpetajate inglise keele riigieksami esseedes" *** Artiklis analüüsitakse siduvate üldlaiendite ehk konnektiivlaiendite kasutamist Eesti koolilõpetajate inglise keele riigieksami arutlevates esseedes. Uurimuse käigus võrreldi inglise keele riigieksami korpuse (ESEC) 150 õppijakeelset esseed LOCNESS-i (Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays) Briti keskkooli lõpuesseede alakorpusega. Tulemused näitavad, et Eesti õppijad kasutavad teksti sidustamisel oluliselt rohkem loendamise või täiendamise põhitähendusega konnektiive (nt firstly, secondly, also) võrreldes emakeelsete kirjutajatega, kelle siduvate üldlaiendite kasutus on mitmekesisem ja tasakaalustatum. Emakeelsed kirjutajad kasutavad rohkem tulemusele ja järeldusele viitavaid laiendeid (nt therefore, thus) ning mitmekesisemaid vastandavaid ja kontekstipõhiseid laiendeid (nt however, on the other hand). Lisaks esineb nende tekstides muid sidustamisvahendeid (nt leksikaalne sidusus, seisukohamarkerid). Õppijate keeletasemete (A2, B1, B2) võrdlemisel selgus, et konnektiivlaiendite kasutus muutub keerukamaks ja mitmekesisemaks keeletaseme tõustes. Siiski on kõigil keeletasemetel domineerivaks semantiliseks kategooriaks loetelule ja täiendamisele viitavad siduvad üldlaiendid. Üks peamisi põhjusi, miks Eesti õppijad nimetatud laiendeid üle kasutavad, võib olla see, et inglise keele õpikud ja õppemeetodid rõhutavad eksplitsiitset sidusust ega pööra piisavalt tähelepanu ülejäänud sidustamisvahendite kasutamisele. Selle tulemusena võivad esseed muutuda n-ö šabloonseks ja ülestruktureerituks. Näeme vajadust täiendada õpetamispraktikaid, et julgustada õppijaid kasutama laiemat valikut konnektiivlaiendeid ning neile lisaks teisi sidustamisvahendeid. Abi võib olla ka korpustööriistade kasutamisest inglise keele tundides, tutvustamaks õppijatele konnektiivlaiendite loomulikke kasutusmustreid koos teiste sidustamisvahenditega.

Daniele Monticelli

The article examines the Estonian translations and reception of the Italian decadent writer, poet, and playwright Gabriele D’Annunzio during the period 1906–1915, encompassing a total of 13 published translations. These include a series of short stories featured in Estonian newspapers and magazines, along with two separate books: the novel Süütu (“The Innocent”, 1913) and a collection of D’Annunzio’s short stories titled Mäss (“Revolt”, 1915). The latter initiatives were associated with the modernist movement Young Estonia (Noor-Eesti), with Young Estonian poet and language reformer Villem Grünthal Ridala emerging as the most prolific Estonian translator of D’Annunzio. An analysis of the newspaper and book translations reveals a consis­tent pattern of omitting or significantly manipulating the overtly explicit or morbid erotic passages found in the original works, for instance when D’Annunzio evokes forbidden sexual relations (such as incest) or associates feminine fertility and reproductive function with disease and bodily decomposition. Reviews of the translations also conveyed a somewhat negative attitude towards the content of D’Annunzio’s works, and even the Young Estonians expressed admiration for his style rather than the decadent motifs and poetics. Ridala’s translations set themselves apart from other newspaper translations by striving to closely reproduce D’Annunzio’s style, boldly leveraging it to advance Young Estonia’s project of renewing the Estonian literary language. This is especially pronounced in the translation of “The Innocent”, which not only outraged critics hostile to Young Estonia’s agenda, but also raised doubts among the movement’s own members. The analysis of the Estonian translations and reception of D’Annunzio at the beginning of the 20th century thus underscores a series of ambivalences in Young Estonia’s attitudes towards the motifs and poetics of European decadence, on the one hand, and the renewal of the Estonian language and literary style through translation, on the other.

Pervin

Language always functions only in the environment where people exist and allows to satisfy all their needs. Therefore, there is an important and close connection between society and the language that sustains it. It is impossible to imagine the life and future of every person without language. Language is considered a social function of society and one of its main pillars. Language development is considered as a very complex process in itself. From this point of view, existing relations between languages are of great importance in the process of language development. Interlanguage relations are simply understood as the influence of one language on another language in some form, but this influence is a complex process. The influence of languages on each other is observed at all levels of language. At this time, not one of the languages, but all the languages in contact affect each other, and at this time the phenomenon of interference occurs. The phenomenon of interference is also emerging in modern times. This is due to the rapid establishment of sustainable economic, political and cultural relations between countries, which leads to the mutual influence of languages. Undoubtedly, languages play an important role in the existence and continuous development of relations between peoples. When there are interactions between peoples, people intend to freely use another language in addition to their own language. In recent years, the presence of people who can speak two languages fluently has led to the further development of international relations. Bilingualism has become a common problem of modern society. The inevitable emergence of bilingualism is connected with the need for new discoveries, inventions and international relations. In short, language plays an important role in the listed relationships. Historically, any changes in social life are instantly reflected in language and polished by passing through the language's own "filter". We can see the full expression of history, cultural values in the language of each nation. All of these listed factors are reflected in the language and become one of the indicators of the phenomenon of interference between languages.

Aet Kuusik

This article explores the linguistic representations and perceptions of the words queer and kväär within the Estonian LGBT community. The study delves into the evolution of LGBT vocabulary in Estonian, focusing on how kväär, the equivalent of the English queer, is perceived and used. Using corpus analysis and an online survey among the LGBT community, the research reveals nuanced attitudes toward kväär in Estonia. The corpus data shows shifts in usage frequencies of LGBT related words that reflect societal debates. The word kväär is multifaceted, used in various contexts, and represents intentional resistance to societal norms or expectations. It also serves as a lens for observing phenomena from a non-conformist perspective. Additionally, it marks membership in the LGBT community without necessitating a specific critical context. The online survey results show diverse attitudes towards the word kväär among the LGBT community, with a slight tendency towards negative interpretations. Gender and age were identified as significant factors shaping attitudes, with non-binary individuals and those under 30 generally expressing more positive views. Thematic analysis of the survey responses uncovers underlying themes and sentiments associated with the word kväär, elucidating various ways in which it is conceptualized and employed within the community. Themes that surfaced in the survey show the complexities and multifaceted nature of kväär as a linguistic construct, shedding light on its role in identity formation and community dynamics within the Estonian LGBT context.

Merje Miliste, Natalja Zagura

Artiklis keskendume tehnoloogia arengule kui mõjutegurile, mis kujundab keelekeskkonda ning toetab mitme keele arengut väikelapse- ja koolieelses eas. Uurimuse ajendiks on juhtum, kus telerit mittevaatavast eestikeelsest perest pärit kaks last hakkasid end mängusituatsioonides väljendama inglise keeles, olles sellega varem kokku puutunud vaid YouTube’i vahendusel meelelahutuse eesmärgil. YouTube’i kui digitaalse õpiruumi fenomeni paremaks mõistmiseks viisime lapsevanematega läbi poolstruktureeritud standardiseerimata paariintervjuud, et uurida, kuidas on võimalik kodus enne kooliiga toetada L1-st erineva keele omandamist nutiseadmete ja YouTube’i abil. Intervjuude analüüsimisel kasutasime kvalitatiivse sisuanalüüsi meetodit. Uurimistulemusena selgus, et vanemate rollid on dünaamilised ning need muutuvad lapse kognitiivse, sotsiaalse ja keelelise arengu käigus koosvaatamisest mentorluseni. *** "A smart device as a magic wand? Parents’ perspective on the impact of YouTube on young children’s second language acquisition" The present article explores the role of technology in shaping language environments and supporting the acquisition of multiple languages among young children and preschoolers. The study focuses on a case where children from an Estonian-speaking family, pseudonymised as Karola and Oskar, began expressing themselves in English in gaming situations, having previously encountered the language primarily through entertainment content on YouTube. Karola started emulating English-speaking YouTubers at the age of five and even created her own videos, while Oskar mainly used English when playing with his toys. The study aims to answer three research questions: when and how the children started using smart devices; how their choices in online content evolved as the children grew; and what roles the parents played in this process. To better understand the phenomenon of YouTube as a digital learning space, a semi-structured non-standardized paired interview was conducted with the children's parents. The goal was to investigate how it is possible to support the acquisition of a language different from L1 at home using smart devices and YouTube. The analysis of the interviews employed qualitative content analysis methods. The results reveal that children started watching short cartoons and animated songs in L1 at the age of one or two. However, as the number of appropriate resources in Estonian on YouTube was limited, they soon opted for cartoons and videos in English. As children grew, they selected the content to watch on the basis of the characters they could relate to. The language in the videos also progressed from simple clearly pronounced words and phrases to fluent authentic use of English. The analysis indicated that parental roles are dynamic and evolve alongside the child's cognitive, social, and linguistic development, ranging from supervision during media consumption to active mentorship.

Elena Markus, Fedor Rozhanskiy

This article discusses demonstrative pronouns in the Soikkola dialect of the Ingrian language. The material for the research comes from the collection of spontaneous speech samples recorded in the 21st century. All the examples are published for the first time. The article presents mainly a qualitative analysis and aims at overviewing the basic functions of the Ingrian demonstrative pronouns tämä and še. It is shown that in the contemporary Ingrian the demonstratives are used as deictic and anaphoric devices, and also as discourse markers. Individual speakers demonstrate differences in the use of these pronouns due to the contact influence from the neighbouring languages.  Kokkuvõte. Elena Markus, Fedor Rozhanskiy: Demonstratiivpronoomenite funktsioonid tänapäeva isuri keele Soikkola murdes. Käesolevas artiklis käsitletakse demonstratiivpronoomeneid isuri keele Soikkola murdes. Uurimuse materjal pärineb 21. sajandil salvestatud spontaanse kõne näidiste kogust. Kõik näited avaldatakse esimest korda. Artiklis esitatakse peamiselt kvalitatiivne analüüs ja selle eesmärk on anda ülevaade isuri demonstratiivpronoomenite tämä ja še põhifunktsioonidest. Näidatakse, et tänapäeva isuri keeles kasutatakse demonstratiive deiktiliste ja anafoorsete vahenditena ning ka diskursuse markeritena. Üksikutel kõnelejatel esineb nende asesõnade kasutamisel erinevusi naaberkeelte kontaktmõju tõttu.

Mari Aigro, Virve-Anneli Vihman

Eleven out of fourteen Estonian nominal cases are generally regarded as semantic cases, rather than grammatical, but some are more grammaticalised (i.e. less semantic) than others. These can be said to be (semi-)grammatical cases, carrying both semantic and syntactic functions. This study focusses on elative and allative case, which stand out among semantic cases in terms of multifunctionality and a higher degree of grammaticalisation. We investigate whether we can find evidence that the grammaticalisation of these cases is ongoing through an apparent time study. While previous approaches have used written data to investigate diachronic change in cases, the present study uses spontaneous spoken data by teenagers and adults to study the nature of grammatical change. This is the first study to diachronically investigate case characteristics related to multifunctionality and grammaticalisation through a quantitative distributional approach. Kokkuvõte. Mari Aigro, Virve-Anneli Vihman. Täitsa lambist: elatiivi ja allatiivi grammatiseerumise tõendeid noorte ja täiskasvanute suulises keeles. Neljateistkümnest eesti keele käändest peetakse ühtteist semantilisteks kääneteks, kuid mõned neist paistavad olevat teistest enam grammatiseerunud. Neid võiks ka pidada (pool)grammatilisteks, kuna nad markeerivad muuhulgas verbide argumente. Käesolev uuring keskendub elatiivile ja allatiivile, mis on varasemates uuringutes esile tõusnud multifunktsionaalsuse ja grammatiseerumise poolest. Uuringus võrreldakse elatiivi ja allatiivi distributsiooni spontaanses täiskasvanute ja teismeliste suulises keeles, et uurida pseudodiakroonilisel meetodil, kas nende käänete grammatiseerumine on eesti keeles aktiivne või on tegu funktsionaalselt passiivsete kategooriatega. See on esimene uuring, mis kvantifitseerib käänete multifunktsionaalsusega seotud distributiivsed omadused, et hinnata käändeid hõlmavate grammatiliste muutuste intensiivsust.

CİHAN ÇAKMAK

The French Revolution, which paved the way for the emergence of nation-nation consciousness, brought the end of autocratic administrations by preparing the ground for radical changes that allowed societies to govern themselves democratically and to elect cadres to govern them. The developments in the political field that emerged in the 18th century had a strong impact on fields such as history, language, religion and especially education. The 18th century Ottoman environment also had its share of these developments, and the strong nationalism idea brought by the French Revolution strengthened the independence movements of the societies. These developments, which prepared the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which had a multilingual, multi-religious and multi-cultural structure under the same empire, accelerated with the movements in the Balkan lands at the beginning of 1900. This situation prepared the ground for them to speak out loudly for demanding the separation of the Bulgarian, Greek and Serbian nations from the empire, who lived together with the Muslim Turkish people for hundreds of years. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the political developments in the Ottoman lands, which were of great importance especially due to the fact that caliphate was in Istanbul, were carefully followed not only by the Anatolian geography, but also by other Turkic societies in Asia and the north of the Black Sea. In this study, the impressions of different parts of Istanbul of the period will be discussed under certain themes, based on the work called “Istanbul Letters” in which Fatih Kerimi, one of the Tatar Turks, who returned to his country after receiving education in Istanbul and engaged in teaching and journalism activities, wrote his impressions of the Balkan War in which the Ottoman Empire was involved.

Pirkko Muikku-Werner

Tässä artikkelissa kuvataan niitä strategioita, joita vironkieliset käyttävät ratkoessaan sukukielisten idiomien merkityksiä. Tarkastelun kohteena on kyselytutkimuksen avulla kerätty aineisto. Kyselytutkimukseen osallistui kaksi ryhmää, opiskelijoiden ja heitä vanhempien vastaajien ryhmä. Molemmat ryhmät tulkitsivat 20 eri-ikäisen figuratiivisen sanonnan sisältöä. Niistä osa on lainattu eri kielistä, osa on alkuperältään suomalaisia. Analyysin kohteena ovat tulkinnoissa hyödynnetyt päättelyprosessit. Tarkoituksena on selvittää muun muassa, miten idiomikonstituentit ohjaavat sanontojen tulkintaa, millainen osuus ensyklopedisella tiedolla on siihen ja miten vähittäinen irtautuminen avainsanan konkretiasta vaikuttaa merkityksen etsintään. Artikkelissa tarkastellaan myös niitä käsityksiä sanonnan sisällöstä, jotka eivät nojaudu sanonnan yksittäisiin lekseemeihin ja ovat siten holistisempia ja korkealla abstraktiotasolla. Lisäksi pyritään löytämään vastaus seuraavaan kysymykseen: onko kielten läheisellä sukulaisuudella vaikutusta idiomien ymmärtämiseen? Tulokset osoittavat muun muassa sen, että vironkieliset tunnistavat suomalaisia idiomeja melko hyvin ja että käytössä on lukuisia päättelystrategioita. Jos virolainen sanonta muistutti vähän etäisemminkin suomalaista, tutkimuksen osallistujat uskoivat myös merkityksen olevan identtinen. Samankaltaisuus saattaa kuitenkin olla harhaanjohtavaa: “petollisia ystäviä” (engl. false friends) löytyy paitsi sanojen myös idiomien tasolla. *** Understanding Finnish idioms – Estonian speakers’ inference strategies *** This article describes the strategies used by Estonian speakers to interpret meanings of Finnish idioms. The data consist of responses to a survey, in which the respondents were asked to write down their understanding of the meaning of 20 figurative phrases in Finnish. The respondents were L2 speakers of Finnish, and they were divided into two groups: students and the respondents older than students. The purpose of the data analysis was to understand the reasoning processes that the respondents utilized while trying to arrive at the correct interpretation. The analysis focused on 1) how the meaning of different constituents guides the interpretation of idioms, 2) how encyclopedic knowledge is utilized in understanding the idioms and 3) how going beyond the concrete meaning of the constituents affects the reasoning. In addition, the study aimed at analyzing how the linguistic affinity of Finnish and Estonian contributes to the understanding the idioms in the cognate language. The analysis shows that Estonian L2 speakers of Finnish recognize Finnish idioms quite well. If the Estonian phrase has some resemblance with the Finnish one, the meaning is believed to be identical. However, the similarity can also be misleading: “false friends” are found not only at the level of words but also at the level of idioms.

A. Rozwadowski

This article focuses on how shamanism and animism, two important features of Altaic ontology, can be expressed in art. This is discussed by exploring the art of Sergei Dykov, a contemporary Altaic (south Siberian) visual artist, whose art is part of a wider trend in modern Siberian art of rediscovering the conceptual potentials of indigenous Siberian values. Dykov is one of those artists whose fascination with Siberian culture is not limited to formal inspirations but who also seeks how to express these indigenous values in contemporary art forms. Drawing on Altaic folklore, its myths and beliefs, including shamanism, as well as ancient Siberian art forms, Dykov searches for a new visual language capable of expressing the Altaic perception of the world. For him, therefore, painting is significantly an intellectual project involving an attempt to understand the indigenous ontology of being in the world. The key concepts around which his art revolves are thus human-animal transformations, human and non-human beings’ relations, and the interconnectedness of the visible and nonvisible. The study was based on an analysis of a sample of his unpublished artworks.

G. He, Mengge Wang, Xing Zou et al.

North China and South Siberia, mainly populated by Altaic-speaking populations, possess extensive ethnolinguistic diversity and serve as the crossroad for the initial peopling of America and western-eastern trans-continental communication. Yet, the complex scenarios of genetic origin, population structure, and admixture history of North-East Asia remain to be fully characterized, especially for Mongolic people in China with a genome-wide perspective. Thus, we genotyped genome-wide SNPs for 510 individuals from 38 Chinese Mongolic, Tungusic, and Sinitic populations to explore the sharing alleles and haplotypes within the studied groups and following merged it with 3508 modern and ancient Eurasian individuals to reconstruct the deep evolutionary and natural selection history of northern East Asians. We identified significant substructures within Altaic-speaking populations with the primary common ancestry linked to the Neolithic northern East Asians: Western Turkic people harbored more western Eurasian ancestry; Northern Mongolic people in Siberia and eastern Tungusic people in Amur River Basin (ARB) possessed dominant Neolithic Mongolian Plateau (MP) or ARB ancestry; Southern Mongolic people in China owned obvious genetic impact from Neolithic Yellow River Basin (YRB) farmers. Additionally, we found the differentiated admixture history between western and eastern Mongolians and geographically close Northeast Hans: the former received a genetic impact from western Eurasians and the latter retained the dominant YRB and ARB Neolithic ancestry. Moreover, we demonstrated that Kalmyk people from the northern Caucasus Mountain possessed a strong genetic affinity with Neolithic MP people, supporting the hypothesis of their eastern Eurasian origin and long-distance migration history. We also illuminated that historic pastoral empires in the MP contributed considerably to the gene pool of northern Mongolic people but rarely to southern ones. We finally found natural signatures in Mongolians associated with alcohol metabolism. Generally, our results not only illuminated that complex population migration and admixture of Neolithic ancestral sources from the MP or ARB played an important role in the spread of Altaic-speaking populations and Proto-Altaic language, which partly supported the Northeast Asia-origin hypothesis, but also demonstrated that the observed multi-sources of genetic diversity contributed significantly to the modern existing extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in North-East Asia.

Uldis Balodis

This article describes the language of the last speakers of Lutsi as well as their family background and the sources of their language knowledge, in order to show the paths by which Lutsi language knowledge – even if only of a fragmentary sort – has survived up to the present day. The language knowledge of these last speakers is described using observations taken from the field notes and memories of other researchers as well as from my own encounters with them. This information is placed in a historical and regional context by providing a detailed overview of the historical extent of the Lutsi community, theories about Lutsi origins and how this connects with the memory of Lutsi families and observed language variation within the Lutsi speech area, changes in Lutsi speaker numbers and language use, and the history of Lutsi documentation and the observations of the researchers who documented them. Kokkuvõte. Uldis Balodis: Lutsi keele kõnelejad ja mäletajad 20. ja 21. sajandi vahetusel. Lutsi keelt räägiti mitu sajandit Kagu-Lätis Ludza linna ümbritsevates valdades ja külades. Lutsi keel ja kultuur said tähtsaks osaks nii Latgali kui ka kogu Läti kultuuriajaloost. Lutsi keel on ühendanud Eestit ja Lätit ning saanud nende ühise pärandi sümboliks. Selle artikli esimeses osas kirjeldatakse lutsi keele uurijate (Oskar Kallas, Heikki Ojansuu, Paulopriit Voolaine, August Sang) mälestusi ja tähelepanekuid ajast, kui seda keelt veel räägiti igapäevaselt. Artikli teises osas antakse ülevaate Põlda valla Jaani küla Nikonovide perekonnast, kes olid viimaseid lutsi keele oskajaid. Samuti vaadeldakse viimaseid lutsi keelepärandi kandjaid tänapäeval – nn mäletajaid –, käsitledes nii nende elulugusid kui ka teadmisi lutsi keelest. Kokkovyteq Lutsi kielehn. Uldis Balodis: Lutsi kiele kynelejaq ni mälehäjäq 20. ni 21. sā-āstaga vaihtusel. Mitu sā-āstakka kyneldi lutsi kīlt Ludzi ümbre valdohn ni küllihn. Lutsi kīļ um nī Lätkalihn ku kaq kȳ Lätihn kultūri aolū tähtsä oza. Lutsi kīļ um kaq tähtsä köüdüs Läti ni Ēstimā vaihel ni noide ütidze perändüze tunnismärķ. Sjōl kirotuzel um katș ossa. Edimädzehn ozahn ma selledä lutsi kiele ūŗjide (Oskar Kallas, Heikki Ojansuu, Paulopriit Voolaine, August Sang) mälehüizi ni tähelepandmizi aost, ku tūd kīlt vīl egä päiv kyneldi. Tȳz̦ ehn ozahn tī ülekaehuze Pylda valla Jāni külä Nikonovi perrest, kohn elliq perämädze lutsi kiele myistjaq. Ma ka kynele perämädzist Lutsi inemizist tǟmbädzel pǟväl – nm mälehäjidest –, kiä viļ tīdväq veidüq lutsi kīlt, ni kaq noide elolūst ni kiele tīdmizest.

Hai Hu, Sandra Kübler

Abstract Translations are generally assumed to share universal features that distinguish them from texts that are originally written in the same language. Thus, we can argue that these translations constitute their own variety of a language, often called translationese. However, translations are also influenced by their source languages and thus show different characteristics depending on the source language. Consequently, we argue that these variants constitute different “dialects” of translations into the same target language. Studies using machine learning techniques on Indo-European languages have investigated the universal characteristics of translationese and how translations from various source languages differ. However, for typologically very different languages such as Chinese, there are only few corpus studies that tap into the intricate relation between translations and the originals, as well as into the relations among translations themselves. In this contribution, we investigate the following questions: (1) What are the characteristics of Chinese translationese, both in general and with respect to different source languages? (2) Can we find differences not only at the lexical but also on the syntactic level? and (3) Based on the characteristics found in the previous questions, which of the proposed laws and universals can we corroborate based on our evidence from Chinese? We use machine learning to operationalize determining the importance of different characteristics and comparing their importance for our Chinese dataset with characteristics previously reported in studies on English. In addition, our methodology allows us to add syntactic features, which have rarely been used to study translations into Chinese. Our results show that Chinese translations as a whole can be reliably distinguished from non-translations, even based on only five features. More interestingly, typological traces from the source languages can often be found in their translations, therefore creating what we call dialects of translationese. For instance, translations from two Altaic languages exhibit more noun repetition and less frequent use of pronouns. Additionally, some characteristics that are not discriminative for English work well for Chinese, possibly because the distance between Chinese and the source languages is greater than that in English studies.

Людмила Григорьевна Бабенко

The dynamics of understanding lexical sets in theoretical and practical aspects over the past 50 years is provided, highlighting the main stages of their identification, study and interpretation features in the light of various scientific approaches: structural-semantic, functional-linguistic, cognitive-discourse, lexicographic, determining the system of principles of their identification, formation of the composition and description of the structural organization. The results of a multidimensional study of lexical sets of different types as an integral dynamic system, that have received multiple interpretations both in theoretical research and in ideographic dictionaries, are presented. The following types of sets are considered: lexical-semantic, functional-lexical, denotative-ideographic, semantic-syntactic, complex lexical-phraseological, synonymous-antonymic, conceptual-discursive. The research is carried out on the material of ideographic dictionaries created by lexicographers of the Ural Semantic School. Examples of descriptions of linguistic and speech sets with emotive semantics presented in a series of these dictionaries are used as illustrative material. The study showed that over half a century, lexical set theory has advanced significantly due to the situation of polyparadigmality in linguistics. It is noted that in such circumstances, different approaches to the study of sets of language and speech units were formed, the identification of fundamentally new semantic associations was substantiated, their typology was developed, the sources, factors and principles of their formation were characterized.

Costel Coroban

This article examines the way rulers are depicted in Icelandic literary sources such as Egils saga and some other literary sources belonging to medieval Scandinavia. We may presume that the construction and description of the image of Norwegian kings in that age, when Christianity had not totally replaced the Old beliefs in Iceland, are conclusive when attempting to better understand and analyze the mixed ideology of power in 12th and 13th century Norway and Iceland. Our aim is to explore the foundations of the political ideology of Early Medieval Norway, which were consolidated in the 12th and 13th centuries, when the authors and sources constructed an intercultural model of kingship based on the recently Christianized culture over which the influences of the old faith was overlapping.

Rui Xia, Zhenchun Pan, Feng Xu

Päivi Laine, Eve Mikone

Artikkeli selvittää maantieteen termistön kehittämistä Virossa ja Suomessa 1920-luvulla. Suomalainen maantieteilijä J. G. Granö tuli 1919 Tarttoon perustamaan maantieteen oppituolia. Tämä oli ylipäänsä ensimmäinen kerta, kun maantiedettä alettiin opettaa viroksi, ja hän tarvitsi valtavasti uutta termistöä. Lyhyen Viron-kautensa aikana Granö pyrki luomaan vironkielisen tieteellisen termijärjestelmän ja vahvistamaan opiskelijoiden käsitystä maantieteestä tieteenalana. Hän piti tärkeänä erikoisalan omakielisen termistön hallintaa. Pyrimme hahmottamaan hajanaisesta arkistoja sanastoaineistosta esimerkkejä Granön luomista vironkielisistä termeistä. Oletamme, että J. V. Veskin nimiin kirjatut uudistermit eivät kaikki ole J. V. Veskin luomia vaan termistöjen kehittämiseen osallistuivat myös erikoisalojen asiantuntijat. Kun Granö palasi Suomeen, hän jatkoi termijärjestelmän ja erityisesti maisemamaantieteen kuvausjärjestelmän kehittämistä. Hänen teoreettinen pääteoksensa Puhdas maantiede (1930) yhdistää Virossa ja Suomessa luodut termit ja kuvaustavat. Hän korosti työssään tieteen tekemistä kansallisilla kielillä mutta tulosten tiedottamista myös kansainvälisillä kielillä. *** "Development of geographical terms in Estonia and Finland in the 1920s" Our article deals with the development of geographical terms in Estonia and in Finland during the 1920’s. This period is especially interesting because the language of instruction in the respective countries changed to Estonian and to Finnish at roughly the same time. The development of scientific terminology in different fields was started on both sides at the same time as well. The Finnish geographer Johannes Gabriel Granö went to Tartu in 1919 to establish a Department of Geography at the University of Tartu. He was the first person to teach geography in Estonian and he needed a vast amount of professional terminology. Previously the teaching languages were German and Russian. During his short stay (3 years), J. G. Granö started developing geographical terminology in Estonian. At the same time, he also made efforts to consolidate the use of new scientific terminology. J. G. Granö established the committee of geographic terminology at Tartu University, but he never published any research in Estonian. The results of J. G. Granö’s work can be found in the different areal studies of Estonia. The main editors of these books were J. G. Granö’s students. The study of the development of Estonian scientific terminology postulates that nearly all new scientific terms were invented by J. V. Veski. We assume that his role was in many areas primarily consulting, not inventing. Many of J. G. Granö’s invented terms are nowadays very common, such as ürgorg,voor, and vallseljak; even many Estonian place names (Soomaa,Lahemaa, Vooremaa) were likely invented by J. G. Granö. Back in Finland, J. G. Granö continued his work on geographical terminology in Finnish. His main theoretical study, Pure Geography (1930), brings together the theoretical basis which was developed in Estonia and practical work done in Finland. J. G. Granö highlighted the importance of doing science in national languages and reporting results in international languages.

Harry van der Hulst

This chapter applies the model that was developed in Chapters 2 and 3 to some well-known and well-studied cases of palatal vowel harmony. Palatal harmony is common in, and almost confined to, Finno-Ugric and Altaic languages. In the latter, palatal harmony often co-occurs with labial harmony. The chapter first discusses variation in the behavior of neutral vowels in Balto-Finnic languages and some special cases in this family. It then analyzes palatal harmony systems in Hungarian and considers the systems of several other languages. The focus is on asymmetries in vowel harmony involving disharmonic suffixes, anti-harmonic roots, disharmonic roots, and non-alternating suffixes.

V. Blažek, Michael Schwarz, O. Srba

Harry van der Hulst

This chapter is devoted to tongue root (ATR or RTR) harmony in Tungusic languages (a.o. Classical Manchu) and Mongolian languages (Khalka and Buriat), which all belong the Altaic language group. In addition to TR-harmony, most Tungusic and Mongolian languages also have a limited form of labial harmony, especially among low vowels. After discussing the Tungusic and Mongolian systems the chapter will focus on the behavior of high vowels, which do not participate in labial harmony, and are either transparent or opaque. A notable difference between Tungusic and Mongolic regards the fact that whereas [i] is transparent to labial harmony in Mongolic, it is opaque in Tungusic. High round vowels are opaque in both groups.