Abstract This chapter discusses the concepts of CO2 emission, global warming, and climate change with an emphasis on their environmental impacts. Specifically, the chapter reviews different sources of atmospheric CO2 emissions and recent advances in the implementation of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. In this chapter, the intricate relationship between CO2 emission, global warming, and climate change was explicitly explained, and CO2 mitigation strategies in selected industrial sectors such as power, cement, iron, and steel as well as the petrochemical industry were presented. An overview of process integration concepts for energy minimization in environmental sustainability studies was highlighted. The current state of research in this field was reviewed, while future prospects in the application of process synthesis techniques to decrease the high energy and material requirement during CO2 capture were suggested. Finally, CO2 emission trend since the beginning of the first industrial revolution was discussed alongside current international treaties, limitations, and forecasts about greenhouse gas emission.
Abstract The renewed concern for the care of the environment has led to lower emissions of greenhouse gases without sacrificing modern comforts. Widespread proposal focuses on energy produced from renewable sources and its subsequent storage and transportation based on hydrogen. Currently, this gas applies to the chemical industry and its production is based on fossil fuels. The introduction of this energy vector requires the development of environmental-friendly methods for obtaining it. In this paper, existing techniques are just presented and the main focus is made on electrolysis, a mature procedure. In turn, some developed proposals as previous steps to the hydrogen economy are presented. Finally, some lines of research to improve alkaline electrolysis technology are commented.
The Qinshui Basin is the main production base of high-rank coalbed methane in China. High-rank coal reservoirs in this region exhibit diverse conditions for coal formation and reservoir development, complex geological structures, low permeability, pronounced reservoir heterogeneity, and significant challenges in reservoir stimulation, which led to early issues such as a low effective resource utilization rate, low gas production per well, and low development profits. By analyzing the characteristics of high-rank coal reservoirs and the development patterns of coalbed methane, this study identifies three key constraints to the efficient development of high-rank coalbed methane: (1) poor precision in selecting areas for efficient development; (2) limited adaptability of development technologies; (3) a mismatch between stimulation processes and coal reservoirs. Investigations into microstructures, coal body structures, in-situ stresses, and fractures—combined with an evaluation of various geological factors’ impact on production—enabled a multidimensional division of development units to identify the geological features of each unit. Consequently, a “five-element” evaluation index system for production potential in efficient development areas was established, and an optimization method for selecting efficient development areas for high-rank coalbed methane was formulated. Analysis suggests that due to the low permeability and strong heterogeneity of high-rank coal, horizontal wells can connect more coal seam fractures, thereby expanding the drainage and pressure-relief areas and reducing the flow resistance of gas and water. This possesses advantages such as high per-well gas production and improved economic benefits. For different geological zones and development stages, in accordance with the principle of “maximizing controlled reserves, maximizing gas production rate, and optimizing economic benefits”, an optimized horizontal well layout technology for high-rank coalbed methane was developed. On this basis, with the objective of “initiating a fracture network, creating new fractures, and controlling reserves”, key technologies were devised—primarily including energy-focused directional perforation, stepwise hydraulic fracturing for incremental production enhancement, a combined application of fine-powder sand, and synchronous well-group interference. At the same time, the process technologies of bridge-plug-and-perforation using active water as the main body and well-group synchronous interference operations were refined, leading to the establishment of a linear fracture network system conducive to gas production, achieving efficient hydraulic fracturing. The application of these research outcomes in the Qinshui Basin has enabled the efficient development of high-rank coal, with daily gas production per horizontal well doubling, the ultimate recoverable reserve per well increasing by 50%, and the productivity attainment rate of newly-built blocks surpassing 90%. When extended to other high-rank coalbed methane blocks in China, these advantages provide technical support and a demonstrative model for strengthening the coalbed methane industry.
Petroleum refining. Petroleum products, Gas industry
Hossein Fazelian, Mostafa Keshavarz Moraveji, Mehrdad Mozaffarian
et al.
Abstract The pulp and paper manufacturing industry generates large volumes of sludge, which is characterized by a high COD content known as pulp and paper mill sludge (PPMS). Co-cultivation of Arthrospira platensis and Rhodosporidium babjevae in the present study was evaluated quantitatively by the production of high-value products through lipid biosynthesis by using PPMS hydrolysate. We pretreated PPMS in two steps: dilute-acid hydrolysis followed by enzymatic hydrolysis. Dilute-acid hydrolysis was statistically optimized using a central composite design, yielding optimum conditions of 1.03% (w/w) nitric–sulfuric acid, 134.8 °C, and 23.6 min. Subsequently, the PPMS hydrolysate underwent enzymatic saccharification for 72 h at 50 °C with 2% (w/w) commercial cellulase. The co-cultivation process thereafter was also optimized using Box-Behnken design, where affecting parameters at optimized levels were 3.86 klux light intensity, 1.48 L min-1 airflow rate, 143 h of co-cultivation, and an A. platensis to R. babjevae ratio of 2.2:1. Under these optimized conditions, lipid yield reached 6.56 ± 0.22 g L⁻¹ (57.64 ± 1.0% of DCW), with a carotenoid yield of 41.22 ± 1.57 mg L-1 and COD removal efficiency of 86.36 ± 0.97%. The properties of the synthesized biodiesel follow the EN 14214 standard, and the formulated biolubricant showed tribological performance similar to that of Shell gas compressor oil S3 PY 220.
Background: This study addresses the need to refine the block structure of the Triassic sequence in the Zhetybay South field, with a focus on the hydrocarbon productivity of the T₂V horizon, which is associated with Middle Triassic deposits. By integrating legacy geological and geophysical data with modern 3D seismic survey results, the analysis provides an updated interpretation of the structural framework and highlights the exploration potential of the target interval. Aim: This paper investigates the geological framework and hydrocarbon potential of the Triassic succession in the Zhetybay South field. Drawing on both legacy and recent data—from exploratory and production wells to 3D seismic surveys – the study synthesizes results from four reserve estimation campaigns conducted in 1972, 1983, 2010, and 2023. Particular emphasis is placed on reassessing the productivity of the T₂V horizon. Materials and methods: The primary data sources include well testing and perforation results, along with 3D seismic surveys conducted at the field in recent years. Results: The structure of the Triassic sequence has been refined, including the reflective horizon T₁o_bot, which hosts the T₁V accumulation. The presence of a potential oil and gas condensate accumulation within the T₂V horizon has been identified and confirmed by testing results from productive intervals. Conclusion: The integration of new 3D seismic data has enabled the revision of structural maps, clarification of the T₁V accumulation’s structural setting, and identification of a block-faulted framework. In the Nоrmaul Arch area, additional 3D seismic acquisition is recommended to improve fault mapping. A structural map of the T₂V horizon has also been developed, providing further support for its productivity. Since reservoir contacts are currently assumed, delineation of the accumulation’s potential extent remains necessary. Following these efforts, an operational reserve estimation for the T₂V horizon is recommended.
Background: In the global transition to low-carbon energy, hydrogen is becoming an important energy carrier. Adapting existing pipelines for hydrogen transportation can reduce costs and accelerate the development of hydrogen infrastructure. However, the use of pipelines in a hydrogen environment is associated with risks such as hydrogen embrittlement and metal cracking. Kazakhstan still lacks practical experience in the operation of hydrogen pipelines, which makes the task of assessing the technical condition of existing pipelines and their adaptation for operation with hydrogen urgen. Aim: To conduct a comprehensive analysis of the integrity of the pipeline operated in an aggressive hydrogen sulfide environment and to assess the possibility of its repurposing for hydrogen transportation taking into account international standards and methods of strength calculation. Materials and methods: The data of in-line inspection (ILI) including ultrasonic testing of wall thickness were used in the work. API 579 standards were used for defects assessment. Calculations were performed using NIMA software, which allows analyzing data on laminations and cracks in metal. Results: The analysis identified six sections with laminations, of which five were found to be acceptable for service at the current operating pressure of 75 bar. One defect (#6) was classified as unacceptable, requiring either immediate repair or a reduction in operating pressure to 52 bar. Conclusion: The study confirmed that conversion of existing gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation is feasible provided thorough diagnostics and compliance with international standards for strength assessment. Implementation of regular pipeline condition monitoring and development of a phased repair strategy to improve infrastructure reliability in hydrogen environment is recommended.
Gas sensors have attracted intensive research interest due to the demand of sensitive, fast response, and stable sensors for industry, environmental monitoring, biomedicine, and so forth. The development of nanotechnology has created huge potential to build highly sensitive, low cost, portable sensors with low power consumption. The extremely high surface-to-volume ratio and hollow structure of nanomaterials is ideal for the adsorption of gas molecules. Particularly, the advent of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has fuelled the inventions of gas sensors that exploit CNTs' unique geometry, morphology, and material properties. Upon exposure to certain gases, the changes in CNTs' properties can be detected by various methods. Therefore, CNTs-based gas sensors and their mechanisms have been widely studied recently. In this paper, a broad but yet in-depth survey of current CNTs-based gas sensing technology is presented. Both experimental works and theoretical simulations are reviewed. The design, fabrication, and the sensing mechanisms of the CNTs-based gas sensors are discussed. The challenges and perspectives of the research are also addressed in this review.
We report the results of a zinc oxide (ZnO) low-power microsensor for sub-ppm detection of NO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>S in air at 200 °C. NO<sub>2</sub> emission is predominantly produced by the combustion processes of fossil fuels, while coal-fired power plants are the main emitter of H<sub>2</sub>S. Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) combined contained 74% of USA energy production in 2023. It is foreseeable that the energy industry will utilize fossil-based fuels more in the ensuing decades despite the severe climate crises. Precise NO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>S sensors will contribute to reducing the detrimental effect of the hazardous emission gases, in addition to the optimization of the combustion processes for higher output. The fossil fuel industry and solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are exceptional examples of energy conversion–production technologies that will profit from advances in H<sub>2</sub>S and NO<sub>2</sub> sensors. Porosity and surface activity of metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)-based sensors are both vital for sensing at low temperatures. Oxygen vacancies (<inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><msubsup><mrow><mi mathvariant="bold">V</mi></mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="bold">O</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>•</mo><mo>•</mo></mrow></msubsup></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>) act as surface active sites for target gases, while porosity enables target gases to come in contact with a larger MOS area for sensing. We were able to create an open porosity network throughout the ZnO microstructure and simultaneously achieve an abundance of oxygen vacancies by using a heat treatment procedure. Surface chemistry and oxygen vacancy content in ZnO were examined using XPS and AES. SEM was used to understand the morphology of the unique characteristics of distinctive grain growth during heat treatment. Electrical resistivity measurements were completed. The valance band was examined by UPS. The Engineered Porosity approach allowed the entire ZnO to act as an open surface together with the creation of abundant oxygen vacancies (<inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><msubsup><mrow><mi mathvariant="bold">V</mi></mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="bold">O</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>•</mo><mo>•</mo></mrow></msubsup></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>). NO<sub>2</sub> detection is challenging since both oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) and NO<sub>2</sub> are oxidizing gases, and they coexist in combustion environments. <i>Engineered porosity ZnO</i> microsensor detected sub-ppm NO<sub>2</sub> under O<sub>2</sub> interference, which affects mimicking realistic sensor operation conditions. <i>Engineered porosity ZnO</i> performed better than the previous literature findings for H<sub>2</sub>S and NO<sub>2</sub> detection. The exceptionally high sensor response is attributed to the <i>high number of oxygen vacancies (</i><inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><msubsup><mrow><mi mathvariant="bold-italic">V</mi></mrow><mrow><mi mathvariant="bold-italic">O</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>•</mo><mo>•</mo></mrow></msubsup></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula><i>)</i> and <i>porosity extending through the thickness of the ZnO with a high degree of tortuosity</i>. These features enhance gas adsorption and diffusion via porosity, leading to high sensor response.
The article describes the project being developed for the digital scientific platform “Aggregator of unstructured geological and field data”, which could potentially be important for the oil and gas industry. The use of new intelligent technologies within the framework of this project will significantly improve the efficiency of processing, storage and use of geological and field information contained in various text sources, mainly in field reports.The main goal of developing a digital scientific platform is to integrate heterogeneous information about the objects of subsurface exploration, which is extracted from reports on deposits of the Republic of Tatarstan. This will create a consolidated database that will become the basis for making informed decisions in the oil and gas sector. The project of the digital scientific platform includes the development of architecture, algorithms and software solutions based on modern methods of text processing and data mining.
Vahid Hassani, Antonis Porichis, Farhan Mahmood
et al.
Accurate and non-invasive measurement of material thickness plays an important role across several industry sectors such as aerospace, oil and gas, rail and others. This paper aims to use neural networks as a predictive tool to enhance thickness measurement accuracy of immersed steel samples. In this study, a set of training data is provided through conducting experiments on an immersed wedge sample with varying thickness using the A-scan method. This dataset is used for training a single-layer neural network. To evaluate the performance of the trained neural network, a set of test data is provided on different samples with various thicknesses. Through this study, a promising methodology is demonstrated toward accurate and effective thicknesses prediction using neural networks. The outcomes exhibited good agreement when employing a neural network with the same architecture to predict the void locations in another sample of similar material. Furthermore, the results revealed that this method has achieved an error of less than 3% for thickness prediction and less than 7% for void detection.
K. K. Kadyrzhanov, A. L. Kozlovskiy, D. I. Shlimas
et al.
The use of ion modification methods associated with high-dose irradiation with low-energy ions is one of the promising ways to increase the resistance of materials to external influences, including high-temperature corrosion. The process of ionic modification involves creating a near-surface layer of material with a high dislocation density due to implantation effects. This inhibits destructive processes caused by corrosive oxidation or mechanical influences. In this work, using the ion modification method to improve the resistance to high temperature corrosion, the authors modified nitride coatings of the order of 500 nm thick. The main purpose of using the ion modification method was to increase the strength characteristics of nitride coatings against high-temperature corrosion, as well as to reduce the effects of coating degradation to mechanical softening and wear after corrosion tests. In the course of the studies, it was found that the use of low-energy irradiation with O2+ ions (40 keV) leads to an increase in the stability of strength characteristics during high-temperature corrosion (with prolonged heating in an oxygen-containing environment at a temperature 700 °C), as well as a decrease in wear in comparison with unmodified nitride coatings applied to the surface of 316L steel. The promise of these studies lies in the development of new methods for modifying steel structures, which will improve the efficiency of resistance to corrosion and mechanical damage, as well as increase the wear resistance of the surface under external mechanical influences. The possibility of increasing stability due to deformation inclusions caused by implantation makes it possible to increase corrosion resistance by increasing the resistance of materials to high-temperature oxidation.
Grégoire R. N. Defoort-Levkov, Alan Bahm, Patrick Philipp
Ion beam processes related to focused ion beam milling, surface patterning, and secondary ion mass spectrometry require precision and control. Quality and cleanliness of the sample are also crucial factors. Furthermore, several domains of nanotechnology and industry use nanoscaled samples that need to be controlled to an extreme level of precision. To reduce the irradiation-induced damage and to limit the interactions of the ions with the sample, low-energy ion beams are used because of their low implantation depths. Yet, low-energy ion beams come with a variety of challenges. When such low energies are used, the residual gas molecules in the instrument chamber can adsorb on the sample surface and impact the ion beam processes. In this paper we pursue an investigation on the effects of the most common contaminant, water, sputtered by ultralow-energy ion beams, ranging from 50 to 500 eV and covering the full range of incidence angles, using molecular dynamics simulations with the ReaxFF potential. We show that the expected sputtering yield trends are maintained down to the lowest sputtering yields. A region of interest with low damage is obtained for incidence angles around 60° to 75°. We also demonstrate that higher energies induce a larger removal of the water contaminant and, at the same time, induce an increased amorphization, which leads to a trade-off between sample cleanliness and damage.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are the primary air pollutant in China. The iron and steel industries have become the primary industrial sources of NOx emissions in China. The NOx emissions from iron and steel industries account for 27.3% of all industrial NOx emissions from sources nationwide, surpassing thermal power generation and cement manufacturing. Over the past ten years, China’s iron and steel industry has achieved tremendous results in flue gas desulfurization, but a huge gap in denitrogenate (deNOx) still remains. In 2019, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment and other departments jointly issued “Opinions on Promoting the Implementation of Ultra-low Emission in the Iron and Steel Industry”, which promoted the retrofitting of ultra-low emission in the iron and steel industry. Sintering, pelleting, coking, and other processes are the focus of retrofitting for NOx emissions. Because their low-temperature flue gas contains several contaminants that differ from the flue gas of thermal power plants, they cannot completely copy the existing deNOx technology for the coal-fired boiler flue gas of thermal power plants. At present, selective catalytic reduction (SCR), activated carbon (AC) adsorption catalysis, ozone (O3) oxidation and absorption, and other technologies are used in sintering, pelleting, and coking processes. These technologies have achieved good results. Herein, we investigated the existing flue gas deNOx technologies for sintering, pelleting, and coking processes in iron and steel industries and analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of SCR technology, AC adsorption catalysis, and O3 oxidation and absorption technologies. The SCR technology has high efficiency and reliable performance, but the operation process requires heating of the flue gas, which uses large amounts of blast furnace gas or coking oven gas, and the service life of the catalyst is typically approximately three years. The waste SCR catalysts are recognized as HW50 hazardous waste. AC adsorption catalytic technology can simultaneously desulfurize and deNOx; its operating temperature is low without flue gas reheating. The by-product of H2SO4 can be utilized, and the waste AC produced can be directly used for sintering or coking, while its deNOx efficiency is low. O3 oxidation and absorption technologies have a low initial investment cost and require little floor space. However, their operating cost is relatively high, and the coabsorption of NOx and SO2 makes the desulfurization ash mixed with nitrate, which increases the difficulty of comprehensive utilization. Finally, we analyzed the application possibilities of SCR and other technologies, providing a reference for the development and selection of deNOx technologies for flue gas from the iron and steel industry.
China's shale gas industry is developing rapidly, but the associated challenges of water resources shortage and water pollution are becoming more and more prominent. Hydraulic fracturing, the core process of shale gas extraction, consumes a large amount of water and produces refractory wastewater, closely linking shale gas fields with water resources. In this context, this article is to (1) summarize the characteristics of water consumption and wastewater production in typical shale gas fields; (2) introduce the current status of water intake and internal reuse and treatment of shale gas wastewater (SGW); and (3) analyse the challenges of water management in shale gas field. In order to promote the sustainable development of the shale gas industry, it is necessary to establish an efficient water management system according to local conditions. Making use of municipal reclaimed water in fracturing, promoting external reuse of SGW, strengthening the monitoring and safety guarantee of water use, and formulating national or regional water management guidelines can improve the utilization efficiency of water resources in shale gas fields.
HIGHLIGHTS
The exploitation of shale gas has close connections with water-related issues.;
Shale gas fields consume large quantities of water in the early stage.;
Shale gas fields produce refractory wastewater in the later stage.;
Shale gas fields need efficient water management systems.;