Hasil untuk "Finnic. Baltic-Finnic"

Irina Koksharova, Silvi Tenjes

The focus of the present paper is on power dynamics and factors affecting the outcome of gatekeeping interviews. Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of habitus, capitals, and symbolic power is at the core of theoretical framework. Using discourseanalysis, communicative behaviour of the participants of three gatekeeping “mock” scholarship interviews was analysed at macro and micro levels. The results revealed that power dynamics and dispositions of the habitus mainly determine the outcome. Power in discourse and over discourse is dynamic, constantly negotiated, and formed based on the habitus. Thus, absolute objectivity in a gatekeeping interview is unachievable, due to the essence of a human nature, bias of any judgement, no matter how framed it is. However, sufficient value should be ascribed to all the factors and the highest achievable degree of objectivity should be opted for by involving several interviewers and developing specific criteria to frame their judgement. *** Läbirääkimised võimu üle ja selle mõju mitmekultuuriliste valikutegemise intervjuude tulemustele Artikkel käsitleb eestlaste, venelaste ja Eestis elavate venelaste vestluskäitumist inglisekeelsete valikutegemise (mängu)intervjuude käigus. Töö fookuses on võimudünaamika ja tegurid, mis mõjutavad intervjuu tulemust. Teoreetilises osas tutvustatakse Pierre Bourdieu habitus’e ja võimudünaamika teoreetilisi aluseid ja tagamaid, sealhulgas kapitalide ja sümboolse võimu teooriat. Artiklis analüüsitakse kolme korpust (mängu)intervjuudest ülikooli stipendiumisaaja valimiseks. Kõikides intervjuudes kasutati inglise keelt lingua franca’na. Analüüsitakse tegureid, mis mõjutavad intervjuu tulemust, lahates sündmuses osalejate vestluskäitumist mikro- ja makrotasandil, kasutades sealjuures diskursuseanalüüsi tehnikaid. Kõikide katsete analüüs näitab, et võimudünaamika ja habitus’e printsiibid avaldavad mõju intervjuu tulemustele. Faktorid, mis mõjutavad vestluses osalejate käitumist, on kas täielikult või osaliselt alateadlikud ega allu kontrollile, ja selle tõttu pole võimalik möödarääkimisi ja vääritimõistmist täielikult elimineerida. Võim diskursuses ja diskursuse üle on moodustatud habitus’e printsiipide põhjal. Võimu üle peetakse vestluses pidevalt ja järjekindlalt läbirääkimisi ning just viimaste edukus mängibki kõige olulisemat rolli mitmekultuurilisel eeslaval toimuvas sündmuses. Kokkuvõttes võib öelda, et vaatamata kriteeriumitele ja raamistikule on absoluutse objektiivsuse saavutamine valikutegemise intervjuus võimatu juba inimloomuse subjektiivsuse tõttu. Sellegipoolest peaks iga eeslaval toimuva sündmuse organiseerija võtma töös kirjeldatud faktorid arvesse ja püüdma otsuste objektiivsust maksimaalselt tõsta. Erinevate intervjueerijate kaasamine ja täpselt ning konkreetselt sõnastatud hindamiskriteeriumid on kõige tõhusam viis selle saavutamiseks.

Mariko Faster, Peeter Päll

Silviu Miloiu

The core approach of the work deals with postcolonial studies and the geographical reference area of “Western Borderlands”, which largely consists of Eastern and East Central Europe. However, the Baltic states stand at the focus of the analysis and as such they are devoted the largest share of the eight chapters of the book. Colonialism, coloniality, and post-colonial are insightfully analyzed in the monograph and the author blends them to concepts such as colonial subject positions and colonial ideology. How to behave properly, what one could speak or do in public and what one instantly felt was forbidden, what could be published and what was rather to be shelved established certain boundaries between the conceivable and the inconceivable. Everything was driven by the colonial ideology which Annus defines as “a system of beliefs and corresponding statements that motivate and guide colonial discourse”. Spotlighting both colonial subject positions and colonial ideology and further encompassing the notion of colonization in the meaning of “territorial acquisition” and “system of domination”, the book is clearly operating in an innovative conceptual framework which turns it into a vital contribution in colonial/postcolonial studies.

Hannu Remes

Silvi Tenjes

Töö eesmärk on leida, kuidas sõjaväelised juhid tajuvad erinevaid suhtlusviise muutuvates tingimustes ning kuidas nad saaksid sellistes situatsioonides paremini toime tulla. Kaasnev eesmärk on leida seoseid tunnetustegevuse (kognitsiooni) ja tajuprotsesside mehhanismide vahel sõjaväelistel juhtidel mitmeviisilistes suhtlussituatsioonides. Korpus on videolindistatud loomulikus õppe- ja õppuse protsessi olukorras kahe kaameraga. Andmeid analüüsitakse kvalitatiivse mikroanalüüsi (kommunikatsioonietnograafia) meetodiga kahetasandiliselt. Artikli teoreetiline osa tutvustab kehastunud simulatsiooni hüpoteesi ning kvalitatiivse analüüsi tulemus laiendab teadmist modaalsuste käitumisest suhtluses. Töö näitab kehastunud modaalsuste olulist seotust intersubjektiivsuse ja kehastunud simulatsiooni mehhanismiga sõjaväelistes õppesituatsioonides. *** "Multimodal communication and understanding of the behavior of others among military leaders" This article analyses multimodal communication in the context of the defence forces. The research focuses on the specific nature of interactions in the military that require the practice of routine activities to be applied in unexpected situations. This unique context affects aspects of interactive communication. The data were collected as part of a research project on multimodal communication among military leaders. The relationship between the research question and more recent theoretical approaches to intersubjectivity is related to the results of brain research that gives insights into the mechanisms of imitation and simulation. They form the basis for brain-body system models in interaction with the world. Underlying embodied simulation is discussed in regard to the concept of intersubjectivity as a shared meaning space (Gallese 2003). The ability to model interactions between the environment and the organism within it allows our brains to model the behaviour of others in much the same way as it models our own behaviour. Imitation and simulation abilities help to understand and predict the behaviour of others. This knowledge is already being applied to improve team effectiveness through shared mental models in 21st century military operations. The results of qualitative analysis extend our understanding of referencing and the behaviour of modalities in communication. The paper provides insights how one modality could refer to another one. The interactive nature of the military revealed the use of artifacts that the civilian world does not consider to be commonplace. In military situations, it is of utmost importance to interpret the behaviour of others in the most correct way in terms of meaning. The use of simulation routines in learning situations is one means to achieve that. Activity tracking is expected to trigger automatic simulation of action, and, in real-world situations, registered routines will enable military leaders to behave appropriately and make the right decisions in a swift manner.

Marin Laak, Kaarel Veskis, Olga Gerassimenko et al.

Kirjandusteadlaste ja arvutilingvistide koostöös katseprojektina valminud Johannes Semperi ja Johannes Barbaruse kirjavahetuse korpus on nii kirjanduslooliselt kui tekstilingvistiliselt huvipakkuv digitaalandmestik. Kirjandusteadlastele avab kaasaegsete digitaalsete meetodite kasutuselevõtt huvitavaid uurimisperspektiive ja vanade uurimistulemuste ülekontrollimise võimalusi arvutuslike meetoditega. Korpuslingvistidele on aga väljakutseks ajaloolise ja isikupärase keelekasutusega, erinevatest keeltest kubiseva ja rohkete koha-, aja- ja isikuviidetega tekstimaterjali ettevalmistamine rikkalikult märgendatud korpuseks. Artikkel peatub üksikasjalikumalt nii käsikirjalise materjali digitaalseks tekstiandmestikuks ettevalmistamise kui ka analüüsi- ja märgendamisprotsessi probleemidel ja nende võimalikel lahendustel. Kasutajatele tutvustatakse ka korpuste päringusüsteemi KORP võimalusi sarnaste tekstide uurimiseks. Abstract. Marin Laak, Kaarel Veskis, Kadri Vider, Neeme Kahusk, and Olga Gerassimenko: Turning from digital document to text corpus: conversion of correspondence between Semper and Barbarus to a machine-readable unit in KORP. The article describes a joined pilot project of literary scholars and language technologists that resulted in a correspondence corpus of Estonian avant-garde poets Johannes Semper and Johannes Barbarus. The corpus is an inspiring digital dataset both for literary and linguistic researches. Contemporary digital methods allow literary scholars to find new interesting research perspectives and to revise the old research results with computational methods. Corpus linguists can find interesting challenges in historically and personally unique language use of the correspondents, in multiple languages used for citations and language play, in multiple references to places, events and persons in the textual material that was transformed to an annotated corpus. The article describes the preparation of typed-in manuscript material for a digital dataset in detail, problems of annotation and analysis and their possible solutions. The reader will get an insight to the possibilities that corpus query system KORP offers for the research of similar textual material.

Nicklas Oranen

This study provides a descriptive account of the adessive case in the endangered and scarcely documented Tver Karelian variety of the Karelian language. The investigation provides not only an overview of the many functional uses of the case in question, but also comparisons to Finnish and Estonian, as well as Russian. The adessive case is historically associated with external location but has acquired a wide range of other uses not directly related to location, including temporal, instrumental, possessive, dative, and experiential functions. The case is even used to mark direct and oblique objects of certain verbs. Some of these functions are shared by the adessive case in other Finnic languages, including Finnish and Estonian, while other functions that set Tver Karelian apart from these relatives appear to have developed under the influence of Russian with which the language has a long history of contact.

Olga V. Mishchenko

This article puts forward etymological interpretations of several Northern Russian lexemes: порочка ‘a vessel in the form of a birch bark cylinder with a wooden bottom and a cover for the storage and transportation of milk, cottage cheese, flour, etc.’, ‘a scoop’, ‘a big reel of thread’, ‘a bunt’, etc., пёрыш ‘a winch, a hoist’, пёрко ‘a spindle, a bobbin of the spinning wheel’. According to the author, the source of these lexemes is the Finnic word family with the meaning of spinning and round forms: Fin. py o r a , py o ri a , Kar. p uo r a , Veps. p o ruda and others. To solve this etymological problem, the author refers to denotatively similar Finnic word families and explicates the logic of their semantic organisation. The discovered principles of semantic organisation of these word families indicate that very probably there were derivatives in the Finnic word family py o r a , whose semantics coincides with the semantics of etymologised Northern Russian lexemes. (These derivatives either have not survived or are not recorded in the modern word family). The author explains the logic of the emergence of all the word meanings considered. In addition to semantic organisation, the author considers the structural organisation of the supposed loanwords studying the possibilities of the formal aspect of the word-formation process in the donor language and the possibilities of word-formation adaptation in Russian. Besides, the article considers phonetic adaptation describing possible reasons for the discrepancy in the position of vowels in the etymon and in loanword порочка . The author assumes that this can be explained by the early nature of borrowing (prior to the  е > ’о shift in Old Russian). At the same time, the author concedes that lexemes with a back vowel in the source language may also exist.

Mirjam Ruutma

Abstract The origins of prepositional phrase structure in Finnic languages shows little evidence of being contact-induced. However, whether language contact has influenced the structure at a later stage is debatable. The current paper provides new findings on the topic of contact-induced change by comparing the distribution of prepositions in Estonian dialects with the respective contact languages. The purpose is to determine whether the usage frequency of prepositions is higher in areas mainly in contact with prepositional Indo-European languages. The topic is approached from a corpus-based, frequency-driven viewpoint. The results show a small, gradual decrease in the use of prepositions from the northeastern to the western dialect areas. Thus, the uneven but regular distribution of prepositions in Estonian dialects cannot be explained with language contact. This evidence supports the general understanding that adpositions are an unlikely class to be influenced by contact.

T. Agranat

Kati Kallio

The focus of this essay is the complex relationship between textual parallelism and performance in historical oral poetry. Since there is no possibility of carrying out any personal ethnographic fieldwork, the main approach to the local categorizations and meanings of singing is to analyze recurrent patterns and combinations of different elements in archival material. This approach relates to discussions about ethnopoetics and textualizing oral poetry. 1 Previously, I have analyzed the local understanding of genres and registers via the analysis of the relationships between poetic texts, melodic structures, singing practices, and performance arenas in archival material relating to one cultural area (Kallio 2013 and 2015). The present essay analyzes relationships between textual parallelism and musical structures in sound recordings from two Finnic singing cultures with related languages and similar poetic forms, but different singing practices. The singers of Ingria and Archangel Karelia had slightly different uses, versions, and interpretations of so-called kalevalaic or Kalevala-metric poems ( runo -songs). 2 The singing styles of these poems varied by region, song genre, performance setting, and performer, and these kinds of factors also affected the relationship of textual and musical parallelism. On a general level, the recordings may be divided into four, partly overlapping cases:

Miina Norvik, Helle Metslang, Karl Pajusalu

The supine inessive form in Salaca Livonian appears in a copular construction or as a sole predicate, and is usually associated with progressive and futurate readings. The linguistic data analysed in this study consist of example sentences in Salaca Livonian that are provided with Latvian, German, and/or Swedish translations. The data originate from the 19th century when Livonian was still spoken by Livonian-Latvian bilingual speakers in the northern part of Latvia. The present paper aims to study the functions and possible development of the supine inessive construction in detail, including the possibility of contact-induced change. The study takes a functional-typological and usage-based approach. We suggest that the usages of the supine inessive form reveal both language-internal development as well as instances of contact-induced development, more precisely reanalysis of Latvian forms with a similar function and/or form. Kokkuvõte. Miina Norvik, Helle Metslang, Karl Pajusalu: Supiini inessiivikonstruktsioon salatsiliivi keeles. Salatsi liivi keeles on supiini inessiivivorm kasutusel koopulat sisaldavas konstruktsioonis või iseseisva predikaadina, olles üldiselt seostatav progressiivsete ja tulevikuliste tähendustega. Uurimuses analüüsitava keelematerjali moodustavad salatsiliivikeelsed näitelaused koos läti-, saksa- ja/või rootsikeelsete tõlgetega. Materjal pärineb 19. sajandist, mil salatsi liivi keel kõlas veel liivi-läti kakskeelsete kõnelejate suus Läti põhjaosas. Siinse artikli eesmärgiks on käsitleda täpsemini supiini inessiivikonstruktsiooni funktsioone ja võimalikku arengut, sh ka kontaktist tingitud muutuse võima likkust. Analüüsimisel on aluseks võetud funktsionaal-tüpoloogiline ja kasutuspõhine lähenemine. Artiklis näidatakse, et supiini inessiivivormi kasutus juhtude hulgas on nii selliseid, mis annavad tunnistust keelesisesest arengust, kui ka selliseid, mis viitavad keelekontaktist tingitud arengule, täpsemini sarnast funktsiooni ja/või vormi kandvate läti vormide reanalüüsile. Märksõnad: progressiiv, tuleviku väljendamine, kontaktist tingitud keelemuutus, finiidistumine, Salatsi liivi keel Kubbõvõttõks. Miina Norvik, Helle Metslang, Karl Pajusalu: Supīn inesīv formõd Salāts līvõ kīelsõ. Salāts līvõ kīelsõ supīn inesīv sōb kȭlbatõd īdskubs kopulaks agā īžkiz; ne formõd jemmitõt võibõd nägțõ progresīvizt ja tulbizāiga tǟntõkst. Kēra alīzõks ātõ kītõmõd Salāts līvõ kīels īdskubs lețkīel, saksā kīel ja/agā rūotškīel tulkõmõdõks. Materiāl um perīņ 19. āigastsadāst, ku Salāts līvõ kīeldõ rõkāndizt līvõ- ja lețkēļizt rovst Pūojlețmōl. Kēras um tuņšõltõd, mingizt ātõ supīn inesīv konstruktsijd funktsijd, ja kui ne ātõ suggõnd. Vel um vaņtõltõd, või mõitõks võib vȱlda perīņ kīeld kontaktist. Analīz alīzõks um funktsionāli-tipologli tuņšlimizmetōd ja kȭlbatimiz tuņšlimi. Tuņšlimi nägțõb, ku supīn inesīv formõd kȭlbatimi vaišti um seļļi, ku sīesõ āt nǟdõbõd suggimizt kīel eņtš sizāl, bet ātõ ka seļļizt, mis āt perīņ kīeld kontaktist, īžkist form ja/agā funktsijd pūolst ītizt lețkēļizt formõd reanalīzõd.

Natalia Kuznetsova

The paper analyses existing moraic conceptions of Estonian quantity. Main features of functional, generative and phonetically-instructed moraic accounts of Estonian are considered. In most generative accounts, morae simultaneously represent several layers of functionally and structurally diverse information. This brings along a considerable increase in formal analytical machinery and internal controversies. In a structural functional framework, morae can be used to formalise the prosodic contrast of long and short stressed syllables in Estonian. Its relevance is seen in actual functioning of the prosodic system. This contrast is built upon the segmental contrast of short and long phonemes and, in turn, serves as a basis for the contrast of two distinctive foot accents, light and heavy. As an example, a formal morphonological algorithm of calculating Estonian foot accents, which also shows the place of the syllable weight contrast, is proposed. Аннотация. Наталья Кузнецова: Эстонская словесная просодия в Прокрустовом ложе мор. Статья посвящена анализу существующих морных подходов к анализу количества в эстонском языке. Обсуждается основные особенности морных концепций эстонского количества в рамках функциональной и генеративной лингвистики, а также понимание моры фонетистами. Генеративные концепции совмещают на одном иерархическом уровне репрезентации (морном) нескольких разных с функциональной и структурной точки зрения пластов информации, что приводит к значительному усложнению формального описания и внутренним противоречиям. В рамках структурного функционального понимания эстонского количества моры могут служить вспомогательным средством для формализации просодической оппозиции краткого (легкого) и долгого (тяжелого) ударного слога. Релевантность этой оппозиции проявляется в функционировании просодической системы языка. Этот контраст надстраивается над сегментной оппозицией кратких и долгих фонем и, в свою очередь, формирует базис для оппозиции лексикализованных стопических акцентов, легкого и тяжелого. В качестве примера в статье приводится формальный морфонологический алгоритм присваивания стопических акцентов в словоформе и показано место в нем слогового веса. Ключевые слова: эстонский, структурная функциональная фонология, автосегментная фонология, словесная просодия, мора, количество Kokkuvõte. Natalia Kuznetsova: Eesti sõnaprosoodia moorade Prokrustese sängis. Artiklis analüüsitakse eesti keele vältekontseptsioone, mis rakendavad mooralist analüüsi. Hinnatakse peamisi funktsionaalseid, generatiivseid ja foneetilisi moorasid arvestavaid seletusi eesti keele kohta. Enamasti esindavad generatiivsetes seletustes moorad samaaegselt mitut funktsionaalselt ja struktuuriliselt hajusa informatsiooni tasandit. See toob kaasa märkimisväärse formaalsete analüüsitehnikate keerustumise ja sisemised vastuolud. Strukturaal-funktsionaalses raamistikus saab moorasid kasutada eesti keeles pika ja lühikese rõhulise silbi prosoodilise kontrasti esitamiseks. Selle sobivust jälgitakse prosoodilise süsteemi tegeliku toimimise põhjal. Kontrast põhineb pika ja lühikese foneemi segmentaalsel kontrastil ja on omakorda aluseks kahele erinevale kõnetakti aktsendile, kergele ja raskele. Artiklis on näitena välja pakutud morfofonoloogiline algoritm eesti keele taktiaktsentide arvutamiseks, mis näitab ka silbikaalu kontrasti kohta. Märksõnad: eesti keel, strukturaal-funktsionaalne fonoloogia, autosegmentaalne fonoloogia, sõnaprosoodia, moora, välted

T. Tuisk

The aim of the current article is to observe affricates in Livonian. Studies on the Finnic languages have described affricates in South Estonian, Veps, Votic, and Karelian, while Livonian affricates are poorly studied. The phonetic data used in this article show that the voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/ [͡ts], voiceless palatal alveolar affricate / tš/ [͡tʃ], and their voiced counterparts /dz/ [d͡ z] and /dž/ [d͡ ʒ] are found in the Livonian phonological system. Also, the occurrence of a palatalised /ḑš/ [d͡ jʃ] was detected. The words containing affricates are primarily Latvian loanwords as well as descriptive and onomatopoeic words. There are some acoustic characteristics that differentiate Livonian affricates from consonant clusters. For instance, the duration of affricates is quite short, being sometimes even shorter than that of single fricatives. The transition from the stop to the following fricative in Livonian affricates is not as sharp as in the case of similar consonant clusters. Also, the existence of the broken tone or stød must not be ignored in Livonian, as it can cause changes in the location of the syllable boundary.Kokkuvõte. Tuuli Tuisk: Tähelepanekuid liivi keele afrikaatide kohta. Artikli eesmärk on kirjeldada liivi keele afrikaate. Lääne meresoome keeltest on afrikaate kirjeldatud lõunaeesti, vepsa, vadja ja karjala keeles, liivi keele afrikaadid on aga suures osas seni kirjeldamata. Artiklis kasutatud foneetiline ainestik näitab, et liivi keele fonoloogilises süsteemis on olemas helitu alveolaarne afrikaat /ts/ [͡ts], helitu palataalalveolaarne /tš/ [͡tʃ] ja nende helilised vasted /dz/ [d͡ z] ja /dž/ [d͡ ʒ]. Lisaks on täheldatud palataliseeritud afrikaati /ḑš/ [d͡ jʃ]. Afrikaate sisaldavad sõnad on eeskätt läti keele laensõnad, deskriptiivsed ja onomatopoeetilised sõnad. Esinevad mõned iseloomulikud akustilised tunnused, mis eristavad liivi keele afrikaate konsonantühenditest. Näiteks on afrikaadi kestus üsna lühike, olles mõnikord lühem üksikust frikatiivist. Üleminek sulult frikatiivile on afrikaatide puhul sujuvam kui vastava konsonantühendi puhul. Afrikaatide hääldamisel on oluline ka katketooni esinemine. Nimelt võib katketoon tingida häälduses silbipiiri asukoha muutuse.Märksõnad: fonoloogia, foneetika, konsonandid, afrikaadid, läänemeresoome keeled, liivi keelKubbõvõttõks. Tuuli Tuisk: Tǟdõlpanmizt iļ līvõ kīel afrikātõd. Kēra tuņšlõb līvõ kīel afrikātidi. Vāldamiersūomõ kēļšti afrikātõd ātõ lieudtõb jedālēsti, vepsā, vaḑā ja karjala kīels. Sīegid līvõ afrikātõd äb ūotõ nei jõvīst tuņšõltõd. Fonētili material sīes kēras nägțõb, ku līvõ kīel fonolōgij sistēms attõ seļļizt afrikātõd: /tš/ [͡tʃ], /dz/ [d͡ z], /dž/ [d͡ ʒ] ja /ḑš/ [d͡ jʃ]. Sõnād, kus attõ afrikātõd, attõ amā jemīņ lețkīelstõ täpīņtõd sõnād, deskriptīvizt ja onomatopoetik sõnād. Līvõ kīel afrikātidi äb või piddõ īņõzkillijid kubūdõks. Nägțõbõks afrikātõd attõ killõld lītizt, jo lītimizt äbku īžki frikatīv. Iļlǟmi t-st agā d-st frikatīv pǟlõ äb ūo nei vaimi ku īņõzkillijizt kubsõ. Tǟdzi um ka līvõ kīel katkāndõks agā murdtõd tūoņ. Až siedā īeldõb, zilb rubīž võib vaidõ eņtš kūož.

Harry van der Hulst

This chapter applies the model that was developed in Chapters 2 and 3 to some well-known and well-studied cases of palatal vowel harmony. Palatal harmony is common in, and almost confined to, Finno-Ugric and Altaic languages. In the latter, palatal harmony often co-occurs with labial harmony. The chapter first discusses variation in the behavior of neutral vowels in Balto-Finnic languages and some special cases in this family. It then analyzes palatal harmony systems in Hungarian and considers the systems of several other languages. The focus is on asymmetries in vowel harmony involving disharmonic suffixes, anti-harmonic roots, disharmonic roots, and non-alternating suffixes.

J. Ylikoski

R. Caldarelli

Reconstructed Proto-Slavic represents Slavic linguistic situation about 600 A. D. This form of Slavic language became one of the pillars of the Slavic ethnogenesis, which was also the result of social and political factors, including Byzantine initiative.About earlier ethnogenetic processes we know very little: probably there were no large phenomena of linguistic mixture, rather there were phenomena of linguistic shift to Slavic, in particular of Finnic peoples, with cultural (not linguistic) substratum traces of their past.

V. Ernštreits

Compounding is one of the most productive types of Livonian word formation. Compounds typically are synthetic and contain one or more modifiers, which follow the head of the compound. Most compound nouns have a singular genitive modifier. Livonian also has an important sub-group of compound nouns and adjectives, which has preserved the historical singular genitive ending *-n in modifiers. On rare occasions, the modifier can also be nominative. In such compounds, the modifier partially agrees in case with the head. An important group of Livonian compound nouns, created on the Latvian model, has declinable active present participles as modifiers. The Livonian system of compounds, just like Livonian itself, generally follows traditional Finnic compound word formation principles, but also has characteristics of compound formation typical of Latvian. Understanding the Livonian system of compounds was greatly helped by use of the Livonian written language corpus.Kokkuvõte. Valts Ernštreits: Liitsõnade moodustamise põhimõtted liivi keeles. Liitmine on üks produktiivsemaid liivi keele sõnamoodustuse liike. Üldjuhul on liitsõnad sünteetilised, koosnevad ühest või mitmest täiendsõnast, millele järgneb põhisõna. Enamiku liitsõnadest moodustavad liitnoomenid, milles täiendsõna on valdavalt ainsuse genitiivis. Liivi keeles esineb ka oluline liitsubstantiivide ja -adjektiivide rühm, mis on säilitanud täiendsõnas ajaloolise ainsuse genitiivi lõpu *-n. Harvadel juhtudel saab liitsubstantiivides täiendsõna olla ka nominatiivis ning sellistes liitsõnades ühildub täiendsõna käänamisel osaliselt põhisõnaga. Läti keele eeskujul on liivi keeles tekkinud oluline liitnoomenite rühm, mille täiendsõnana kasutatakse tegevust tähistavat käänduvat aktiivi oleviku partitsiipi. Nii võib öelda, et liivi liitsõnasüsteemis nagu ka liivi keeles üldisemalt ilmnevad nii läänemeresoome keelte traditsioonilised liitsõnade moodustuspõhimõtted kui ka läti keelele iseloomulikud liitsõnade moodustamise jooned. Liivi keele liitsõnade süsteemist ülevaate tegemist aitas oluliselt liivi kirjakeele korpuse kasutamine.Märksõnad: liitsõnad, keeleajalugu, keelekontaktid, liivi keelKubbõvõttõks. Valts Ernštreits: Ītsõnād sǟdimiz pūojmõtkõd līvõ kīels. Ītimi um ikš amā produktīvist līvõ kīel sõnādlūomiz vīțist. Ītsõnād amā jemīņ ātõ sintētizt, nēḑi vīțõb ikš agā setmiņ līekõsõnnõ, mis tagān um alīzsõnā. Amā jemīņ līvõkīels ātõ nǟdõb ītnomend, kus līekõsõnā um īdlug genitīvs. Līvõ kīelst um lieudtõb ka tǟdzi ītsubstantīvõd ja ītadjektīvõd grup, kus līekõsõnā um vȯidõn vanā genitīv lopāndõks *-n. Ōrastiz ītsubstantīvis līekõsõnā võib vȱlda ka nominatīvs ja seļļižis ītsõņši līekõsõnā ītõb nõtkīs alīzsõnāks. Lețkīel nägțõb pierrõ līvõ kīels um suggõn tǟdzi ītnomenõd grup, kus līekõsõnā um nõtkiji partitsip. Võib kītõ, ku līvõ kīel ītsõnād sistēms nemē ka līvõ kīels amnämniz ātõ lieudtõb nei vāldamiersūomõ kīeld irdizt ītsõnād lūomiz pūojmõtkõd, ku ka lețkīel ītsõnād lūomiz irdõkst. Līvõ kīel ītsõnād sistēmõ um dižānist äbțõn mȯistõ līvõ kērakīel korpus kȭlbatimi.

A. Selart, Andres Tvauri, Alar Läänelaid

Kastre (sometimes called Uue-Kastre) Castle on the north shore of the Emajogi River has been almost totally destroyed. At one time it belonged to the Tartu bishops, and a trade route connecting the Baltic Sea countries and Russia through Tartu and Pskov ran past the castle. In the Middle Ages, this also marked the actual boundary of the Tartu bishopric, since only unsettled wetlands covered the area between the castle and the lake. The Kastre Castle is mentioned in the written records for the first time in 1392 as a customs checkpoint, in connection with a treaty between the Hanseatic towns and Novgorod. There was a barrier near the castle that was stretched over the river with a rope or chain, which stopped the boats and ships from sailing through without stopping. When the Pskovians launched a military expedition on their lodʼya boats against the Tartu bishopric in 1342, there is no mention of the Kastre Castle. The place name is probably based on the Old Russian word kosterʼ ( костеръ ), which meant stronghold and has been used as a loan word in the eastern Finnic languages. The German name of Kastre is Warbek, and the current explanation is that this meant “river defence” (Middle German were des bekes). However, were has also meant fish barrier, i.e. a fishing structure built across the flow of the river. In 1993, the owner of the castle property had the moats around surrounding the castle and outer bailey dredged and widened, which changed their location and appearance notably. The first archaeological studies at the castle were conducted to verify the damage caused by this unauthorised excavation work. In 1994, the profile of the ground exposed by excavator rooting around in the moats was documented. In 2001, the first archaeological excavations took place at the site of the Kastre Castle. There were plans to build a new structure between the walls of the tavern that had been built on the site of the castle in the late 18th and 19th century, and the necessary trenches were dug in the course of the archaeological rescue excavations. Supervision of the construction work, as well as excavation work related the cleanup of the moats and surrounding property, continued for the next few years. Depending on the location, the excavations reached the cobblestone paving that was located 40–120 cm below the prior ground level in the courtyard and interiors of the castle. In 2001, wood samples were taken from the logs that were revealed on the western slope of the western moat of the Kastre outer bailey, and had been used to fortify the incline. The dendrochronological study shows that the logs were fell after the 1376 growth period (summer). Therefore, the moat of the Kastre outer bailey was probably fortified in 1377. The direct motivation for building the castle may have been the border war between Pskov and the Tartu bishopric that lasted from 1367 to 1371. The main battlefield of the war was Lake Peipsi, and a dispute about the fishing rights in Lake Lammijarv has been given as the main explanation for the war. Kastre was a very important medieval fishery centre for the lower Emajogi River and Lake Peipsi. Here the import of fish was taxed. In the vicinity, one could find the fishing grounds of the Tartu bishop, the Cathedral Chapter, the town of Tartu, monasteries and private manors, as well as of the Teutonic Order. The water and winter roads that ran through Kastre from Tartu toward Russia or Narva comprised an important traffic zone, which the castle controlled. Kastre was the centre of the relevant Tartu bishopric’s administrative division. The bishops are said to have visited the border castle personally on many occasions, so suitable rooms must have existed at the castle. An idea of the castle is provided by plans from 17th century. The castle was built in at least two stages. Its foundations were built on log floats. First an unusual rectangular building of fieldstones and bricks was built, the longest wall of which was 17,5 metres and the shortest 12 metres; the walls were 2,5 to 2,8 metres thick. The walls on the north and northwest side of the castle were built later against the originally planned walls; whereas the upper parts of the original northern and eastern walls were demolished. A subsequent addition was the cannon tower on the southeast corner of the castle, which is indicted on plans from the late 17th century, and the diameter of which, based on these plans, would have been about 9,5 metres. Considering the location of the walls that have been revealed, most of the tower’s foundation walls have been washed away by the Emajogi River. Apparently a wooden building was located in the northern part of the castle’s courtyard. The castle was surrounding by a moat that was up to 15 metres wide. It is not possible to determine the exact time of the different stages of construction. From the dendrochronological studies we can conclude that the outer bailey, or at least the area surrounded by moats, is not a later construction but most probably one of the oldest parts of the castle. Bricks typical of the 14th and 15th centuries have been used in the walls of the first construction stage; the addition, based on the dimensions of the bricks, is a later construction. There have been no finds on the entire property that date back to the period before the 15th century. On the west side of the castle, there is an area that is about 60 metres long and wide, and surrounded by a 10-metre-wide moat. The cultural layer here is only a ten or so centimetres thick. There were probably no stone buildings here; but it’s possible that wooden outbuildings were already located here when it was a bishopric castle. A tavern and outbuildings are indicated on the 17th century plans. In the course of cleaning the moats, wooden shore fortifications came to light in the northeast corner of the outer bailey. There was a small settlement near the castle, which, in 1601, included 21 households – 20 of them fishers and one brewer. A Mary Magdalene chapel is mentioned in 1613 here. A cemetery is located on the western side of the castle, which could have surrounded a chapel. The Kastre Castle has been repeatedly associated with military events, such as border wars and internal conflicts. In the Livonian War, Kastre was one of the first castles that fell into the hands of the Russians in 1558. Based on the Truce of Yam-Zapolsky, the castle was transferred to Poland in 1582. During the Russo-Swedish War in 1656, the Swedes were able make repairs the castle and make it defensible, and they stationed garrison there. However, it still fell into Russian hands until the Treaty of Karde was signed in 1661. In the late 17th century, the Swedes planned to completely rebuild the castle. But as of 1704, the castle was still in ruins. After the Great Northern War, being inside the borders of the Russian Empire, the Kastre Castle lost its potential military importance. By the second half of the 18th century, the castle had turned into “a pile of stones”, from which a tavern was built.